ln>uWTAiTm>Hiun.-iiri«u<iaRairitnwmiuTim;iunu;)iluriTi«t|ii>>iri«u>i7t>Ti<rmwtMs^ 



'7i 



ducktionXl^^ , , 



4 



(JlVmbiah 

(OMPLETE 

Qrammai 



S^J^h^^^s^^-S"^^::^^^^^ 





^. U 




LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



Shelf ._ A/- 5:9^^ - 

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



COMPLETE COURSE 



IN 



LANCxUAGE AND GRAMMAR 



FOR 



HIGHER GRADES 



REVISED EDITION 



R^VI 



BY 



THOS. R^VICKROY, A. M., Ph. D. 




SEP --g"l898 



CHICAGO NEW YORK 



The Werner Company ^'hKhiff rh,„ . 






Copyright, 1891, by T. R. Vickroy, 

Copyright, 1892, by Columbian Book Company. 

Copyright, 1895, by The Werner Company. 



PREFACE. 



PREFACE. 



The study of the forms of English words and their 
interrelation, constitutes an important branch of learning. 
Ability to use good English in speech and to employ 
correct forms in writing, distinguishes between literacy 
and illiteracy. The public demand good linguistic train- 
ing for their children and our chief teachers are plead- 
ing for the careful study of grammar in elementary 
schools. 

The unrest of the past two decades has amended and 
improved the matter of text-books on grammar. Much 
that had little educational value has dropped out, and 
much of great practical value has come in. The test of 
experience has been applied to new and' old theories and 
fresher and better methods have resulted. 

We are indebted to Messks. Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 
of Boston, for the use of their best editions of standard 
literature, from which we have culled so many illustra- 
tive gems. These quotations are pearls of thought and 
sentiment which should be imbedded in the minds of all 
our youth — a seed fruitful in elevating and refining. 

St. Louis, Feb, 10, 1892, 



4 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 



preface -to \\iq I^e\)ised GdHion. 



The correlation of spelling, reading and language is 
worked out in the Columbian Speller, Readers and Gram- 
mars. The province of each is distinctly marked and the 
one will aid in making instruction in the others more 
thorough. 

For a generation the pendulum has been swinging back 
and forth between technical grammar, mere parsing, or 
mere diagraming, and language lessons with technical gram- 
mar emasculated. Through this agitation and discussion, 
the good things of both technical grammar and language 
lessons have been brought into clearer light. The swinging 
pendulum has not only become conscious of its movement, 
but it has developed the power of self-direction. 

The advances in philological and ps3^chological study 
has made it possible to make grammar practical by basing 
it upon facts developed through the former and laws dis- 
covered through the latter. Grammar treats of the laws of 
language — Logic of the laws of thinking, but as language 
is the expression of thought, sound educational principles 
demand that thought, as the basis of language, be made 
prominent. This has been done in the Columbian books on 
language and grammar. 

Chicago^ July 1, 1895. 



CONTENTS. 



CONTENTS. 



PART I. — THE PROPER FORM OF WORDS. 

General Definitions : English Grammar, three 
phases of language culture, orthography, ety- 
mology, syntax and prosody, - - - 13-14 

Elements of Words : Vowels — long, short, 

shade, diphthongal ; groups of vowels, - 14-16 

Consonants : Classes of consonants ; table of 

elementary sounds, - - - - - 16-17 

The Nature and Powers of Letters: Speech; 
letters; uses of letters — 14 letters having an 
unvarying sound ; four sounds of a, three 
sounds of e, two sounds of i, three sounds 
of o, four sounds of u, two sounds of c, two 
sounds of g, two sounds of s, two sounds of 
n, two sounds of w, two sounds of y, three 
sounds of X, 18- 24 

Orthographic Devices : The digraphs oi, ow, 
th, ch, sh ; mute e ; doubling of consonants ; 
table of varying sounds, - - - 24-29 

The Sentence : Parts of sentences — subject, 
predicate, copula, adjective element, objective 



6 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

element, adverbial element ; forms of sentences — 
declarative, interrogative, imperative, exclama- 
tory; rank of sentences — principal, subordinate; 
structure of sentences — simple, compound, com- 
plex, contracted, abridged, mixed; synopsis, 30- 33 

Punctuation : Punctuation marks ; period, inter- 
rogation-point, exclamation-point, colon, semi- 
colon, comma, parentheses, quotation-marks, 
dash, hyphen, apostrophe, caret. Eules and 
exercises, - - - - - - - 34- 41 

Capitalization : Seven rules for capitals. Exer- 
cises, - - - - . - - 42- 43 

Lretter-Writing : The heading, the address, the 
salutation, the body of the letter, the comph- 
mentary ending, the signature, folding and 
enclosing, the superscription, model business 
letter, formal notes, acceptance of invitation, 
invitation not accepted, - _ - - 44_ 50 

Topical Review, 50- 51 

Synoptical Review, - - - - - - 52 

PART II.— CLASSIFICATION AND INFLEC- 

TION. 
Parts of Speech: 

The noun, kinds of nouns, = ° - 53-58 

The pronoun, kinds of pronouns, = - 58- 64 



CONTENTS. 



The verb, kinds of verbs. Verbals, uses of ver- 
bals, 64- 70 

The adjective, kinds of adjectives, - - 70- 72 

The adverb, 73-74 

The preposition, ------ 74- 76 

The conjunction, - - - - - 76-77 

The interjection, - - - - - 77-79 

Grammatical Properties : 

Gender — masculine, feminine, common, neuter. 

Exercises. Forms distinguishing sex, - 80- 89 

Number — singular, plural, rules for pluraliz- 

ing nouns, plural forms. Exercises, ' - 87-91 

Case — rule for forming the possessive case. 

Exercises, - - - - - - 91-93 

Person- — declension. Exercises, - - - 94- 98 

Voice — active, passive. Exercises, - - 98-102 

Mode — indicative, potential, subjunctive, im- 
perative, verbals. Exercises, - - - 102-108 

Tense — fourfold in stage and threefold in 

time. Exercises, - - - - 108-112 

Conjugation : Old, new, inflected forms, princi- 
pal parts, summary of inflected forms, auxiliary 
verbs, conjugation of auxiliaries. Uses of 
auxiliaries, synopsis of build, - - 113-132 



8 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

Formation and Use of the Principal Parts : 
Definitions and rules, exercises, regular verbs, 
irregular verbs, - - - . - 132-142 

Comparison : positive degree, comparative degree, 
superlative degree, adjectives and adverbs 
compared irregularly. Exercises, - - 142-146 

PART III. — THE EXPRESSION OF THOUGHT. 

General Definitions : Idea, word, thought, sen- 
tence, 149 

Forms of Sentences : Declarative, interroga- 
tive, imperative, exclamatory, - - 150-152 

Elements of Sentences : Words, phrases, 
clauses ; principal (subject, predicate, copula) 
subordinate (adjective, objective, adverbial), 152-154 

Constituents of Elements : Words, phrases, 

clauses, ------- 155-156 

Classification of Clauses : Substantive clauses, 
relative clauses, adverbial clauses — conditional, 
concessive, final, causal, modal, local, tem- 
poral, 156-160 

Forms of Elements: Simple, compound, com- 
plex, ------- 160-161 

Symbolization of Elements : Words, phrases, 

clauses, - - - - - - - 161-163 



CONTENTS. 



Structure of Sentences : Simple, compound, 

complex, contracted, abridged, - - 163-164 

Analysis of Sentences: Simple sentences in- 
volving words only ; simple sentences involving 
phrases ; complex sentences involving clauses ; 
sentences involving compound elements ; com- 
plex sentences involving other sentences, - 164-173 

Construction of Sentences: Changing the 
forms of elements ; words into phrases and 
clauses, phrases or clauses into single words, 
verbals into dependent clauses, a coordinate 
sentence into a dependent one, interchange of 
phrases and clauses; of verbals to paronyms, 
infinitives into dependent clauses; participles 
into dependent clauses ; clauses into verbals ; 
verbals into clauses, ----- 173-181 

Resolution and Combination of Elements: 
Sentences into detached statements ; the com- 
bination of several statements into simple sen- 
tences, into complex sentences, into compound 
sentences, into contracted sentences, into 
abridged sentences, ----- 181-190 

Form and Order of Words: Agreement of 
subject and finite verb; pronoun agreeing with 
an antecedent ; the sequence of tenses ; the 
use of the objective case ; use of the possessive 
case ; order of words (subject, verb, adjective, 
adverb), 190-199 



10 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

The Syntax of Words : Classes of syntactic 

relations, 200-271 

The Subject and the Verb: - - - 200-20G 

Objective Relations: Direct object; object of 
a preposition ; uses of particular prepositions, 
the indirect object, 206-217 

Limiting Relations : Possessives — appositives — 
adjectives, uses of the articles, uses of demon- 
stratives and numerals ; the adverb, the noun 
of quantity ; participials ; limitations expressed 
by inflection and auxiliaries, past time, future 
time, manner, ----- 217-235 

Complemental Relations : Predicate noun, 
predicate pronoun, predicate adjective ; transi- 
tive verb and noun ; transitive verb and adjec- 
tive, verbs expressing semblance, tendency 
and effort, 236-244 

Conjunctive Relations: Coordinate conjunc- 
tions ; subordinate connectives — subordinate 
conjunctions, conjunctive adverbs, relative pro- 
nouns. 244-259 

Sentences constructed from given conjunctive 

words, - - 260-261 

Participial Relations: Forms of participials; 
uses of participials ; predicates ; participial 
nouns; adverbs; abridged clauses, - 262-271 



CONTENTS. 11 



Forms of Expression: Loose sentences, periodic 

sentences, - - - - - - 272-274 

Figurative language : Figures of Etymology 
— Prosthesis, Epenthesis, Paragoge. Figures 
of Orthography — Aphieresis, syncope, apocope, 
amendation. Figures of Syntax — Ellipsis, 
pleonasm, h^^perbaton, enallage. Figures of 
Rhetoric — Simile, metaphor, allegory, hyper- 
bole, personification, antithesis, climax, meton- 
om}^, synecdoche, apostrophe, interrogation, 
irony, vision, 274-282 

Solecisms : The proper use of singular and 
plural forms, words used without distinct refer- 
ences, the improper omission of words, the 
wrong form of words, using the wrong word, 
and improper positions or additions of words, - 282-291 

Prosody: Poetry, kinds of poetry, a verse, a 
couplet, a triplet, a stanza, a sonnet; versifi- 
cation, rhythm, rhyme, a rhyme, poetic feet, 
names of verses, poetic pauses, heroic verse, 
blank verse, elegiac verse, the ballad stanza, 
hymnology, common meter, short meter, long 
meter, hallelujah meter, anapestic tetrameter; 
other meters, trochaic, dactylic, anapestic, 
amphibrachic ; Spenserian stanza. Gay's stanza, 
dactylic hexameter, rhyme royal, ottava rima, 
terza rima, ------ 291-300 

Topical Review, - - . - 301-303 

Synoptical Review, - - - - 304 



12 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 



COURSE OF STUDY. 



First Quarter^ 
Second Quarter^ 
Third Quarter^ 
Fourth Quarter^ 



Sixth Year. 



pp. 13-24, 

pp. 24-41, 

pp. 42-58, 

pp. 58-70, 



§ 1- 35 

§ 36- 79 
§ 80-115 
§116-133 



Seventh Year. 



First Quarter^ 
Second Quarter^ 
Third Quarter, 
Fourth Quarter, 



pp. 70- 79, 

pp. 80- 98, 

pp. 99-132, 

pp. 132-148, 



§ 134-156 
§157-211 
§212-259 
§ 259-300 



Eighth Year. 



First Quarter, 
Second Quarter, 
Third Quarter, 
Fourth Quarter, 



pp. 149-190, 
pp. 190-235, 
pp. 235-271, 
pp. 272-304, 



§ 300-369 
§ 370-453 
§ 454-504 
§ 504-595 



GRADED WORK IN LANGUAGE. 13 



COMPLETE COURSE 



LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 



PART I. 
The Proper Form of Words. 



GENERAL DEFINITIONS. 

1. English Grammar is the study of the forms of 
English speech and of the relation of these forms to one 
another. It develops principles and rules for the right 
use of language. 

2. As language culture, Grammar embraces a con- 
sideration of three things: 

I. — The elements of words and the conventional modes 
of representing them; 

II. — The classification and inflection of words, and — 

III. — The linguistic forms used in the expression of 
thought and sentiment. 



14 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

3. Grammar is often divided into four parts, viz; 

1. Orthography, or the art of writing words with 

proper letters ; 

2. Etymology, or the classification, inflection and 

composition of words ; 

3. Syntax, or the proper arrangement of words in 

the construction of sentences, and — 

4. Prosody, or the laws of versification. 

ELEMENTS OF WORDS. 

4. English speech consists of forty-two elementary 
sounds, divided into — 

I. Vowels, and — 
II. Consonants. 

5. A Vowel is an element of speech in which the 
voice has free play and is modified by different positions 
of the tongue, mouth and lips. 

6. There are six long vowels, heard in the words he. 
liay^ Jia^ Jiaiv, Jioe^ ivJio, 

7. There are six corresponding short vowels, heard 
in the words hid^ lieacl^ liad^ Jiod^ Jiud^ hood. 

8. There are two peculiar shade vowels before r, 
heard in the words air and err, 

9. A Syllable is that part of a word which is uttered 
at a single effort of the voice. 



% 
ELEMENTS OF WORDS. 15 



10. A Diphthong is the union of two vowel sounds 
in one syllable. 

11. There are four diphthongs, heard in the words 
highj Jioy, hoio^ hue. Long i and long u are improper 
diphthongs ; oy and ow are proper diphthongs. Long a 
and long o are also improper diphthongs. ( See Webster's 
Principles of Pronunciation^ §§2 and 19). 

Note 1. — The composition of the diphthongs (See Webster^ s 
Principles of Pronunciation) is as follows: 

1. Long i consists of a in arm and y in pity (P.P. 

§ 15, Note). 

2. Long u consists of y in pity and ii in rule (P.P. 

§ 29, Note). 

3. The diphthong oi (oy) consists of o in form and 

y in p>ity, (P. P. § 38, Note). 

4. The diphthong ou (ow) consists of a in arm and 

u in rule (P.P. § 39, Note). 

Note 2. — In unaccented syllables, the long vowels, the shade 
vowels and the diphthongs may be briefly uttered, as chaotic^ 
deceive, potato, identity, spheroid. In accented syllables before th, 
or before /, n, or s followed by another consonant, a and o have 
a sound not so long as in arm or form, nor so short as in 
America or not, 

12. The vowels modified in the mouth are called 
Palatal vowels; — those modified by the lips are called 
Labial vowels. 



16 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

GROUPS OF VOWELS. 

I. Palatal vowels: a, a, a, a, e, e, i, i, oi. 
IL Labial voivels: 6, o, o, u, e, u, u, u,ow. 

13. A Consonant is an element of speech consisting 
of breath or voice, modified by the tongue and checked 
by the lijos^ the teeth ^ the roof of the mouthy or in the 
throat. 

14. The consonants are continuoics, resonant or 
explosive. The continuous consonayits consist of the 
semivowels^ w, 1, r and y ; the voiced spirants^ v, th 
{thee)^ z and zh; and the breathed spirants, f, th 
(fhin'), s and sh. The resonant consonants are the three 
nasal mutes, m, n and ng. The explosives are the soft 
mutes, b, d, j, and g; the hard mutes, p, t, ch and k; 
and the aspiration, h. 

15. The consonants are best learned in groups of 
three, viz: 

w V f , 1 th th, r z s, y zh sh (^continicous^ . 
mbp, ndt, j ch, ng g k (^mutes). 

Note 1. — The labial consonants are checked at the lips; the 
dental consonants, at the teeth] the palatal consonants, at the 
roof of the mouth; and the guttural consonants in the throat. 

Note 2. — The voiced and breathed spirants are made by- 
pushing the tongue forward from its positions for the semi- 
vowels. Thus: to make th {thee), push the tongue forward from 
the position for I, 



VOWELS AND CONSONANTS. 



17 





i6. Exercises. 




Have pupils mark 


the voivels in the 


accented syllables of 


the folloimng ivords : 






abdomen. 


erudition, 


slough, 


acclimated, 


fetich, 


squalid, 


acumen. 


finance. 


squalor, 


alternate, 


ignoramus, 


sumac. 


balm, 


jugular, 


tirade. 


buoy, 


nauseous, 


tortoise. 


capuchin, 


palmer. 


tribune. 


chasten. 


peremptorily. 


tripod. 


coadjutor, 


recourse, 


truculent. 


combatant. 


saline. 


usurious, 


contumely, 


satire, 


vicar. 


deficit, 


satyr. 


waft. 


enervate, 


seraph. 


zouave. 



Table of Elementary Sounds. 

I. VOWELS. 

Long. Short. Shade. Diphthongal. 



Palatal : 


e 
a 


1 
e 




ae=i 




a 


a 


a 


6e=:oy 


Labial : 


6 

< 




ii 


e (1,0, u) 


a obr==ow 




00 


u 




i 00 =ii 



Semivowels: 



Spirants : 



Mutes : 



IL CONSONANTS. 

Labial. Dental. Palatal. Guttural 
1 

til 



Aspiration : 



{voiced : 
breathed 
fnascd: 
< soft: 
[^ hard : 



w 

V 

f 

m 
b 
P 



th 
n 
d 
t 
h 



r 
z 

s 



3 
ch 



y 

zh 



y contin- 
sh J uous. 
nor resonant. 



k 



explo- 
' sive. 



18 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

THE NATURE AND POWERS OF LETTERS. 

17. Speech consists of significant articulate sounds. 
Written language is based upon spoken language and is 
the means of representing it. 

18. Letters are characters used to represent 
elements of speech. 

19. An Alphabet is the body of letters used in 
writing a language. 

Remark. — The alphabet now used in writing the English 
language is a modernized Roman Alphabet, including six new 
letters, viz: J, K, U, W, Y and Z. These 26 letters, through 
various devices of spelling, serve the purpose of representing 
forty-two sounds. 

USES OF LETTERS. 

20. The fourteen letters, b, d, f, h, j, k, 1 m, p, 
q, r, t, V, and z, each represent one unvarying sound. 

Remark. — K and q are duplicates, j and z have not yet 
taken th© place of g and s which frequently have the power of 
j and z. Ph and gh are frequently used for f. 

21. The twelve letters, a, e, i, o, u, c, g, n, s, w, 
X and y are variously used. 

22. The letter a represents four distinct sounds, viz: 

1. Italian a a as in cahn, arm^ hearth^ taunt^ art^ 

pass^ after ^ America^ aloft ^ a. 

2. Short a, as in sat^ tJmt^ p^a^d. 

3. Circumflex a as in cu'r, glare ^ bear. Circumflex e, 

as in ere, their, is the same sound. 



USES OF LETTERS. 19 

4. Diphthongal or long a, as in hale^ slain ^ slay^ 
gauge, gaol. E in vein, they, veil, weight, 
freight, has the same sound. 

23. The letter e represents three sounds, viz: 

1. Short e, as in met, leather, heifer, leopard, guest, 

merry, very. 

Remark. — A has this sound in the words any, many, said^ 
says, again, against, and in the unaccented endings ace, acy, ade, 
age, any, ary, and ate in nouns and adjectives-, as, preface, 
delicacy, comrade, image, miscellany, February, delicate. 

2. Long e, as in beef, mete, beat, seize, siege, key, me, 

Remark. — In words like pique, machine, field, i repre- 
sents this sound. 

3. Tilde e, as in her, earth, err, soldier, 

Kemark. — This sound is also represented by i, 0, u, 
y, as in bird, luork, burn, myrrh; tapir, odor, sulphur, 
satyr, icorth. The sound occurs only before r. 

24. The letter i represents two sounds, viz: 

1. Short i, as in pit, curtain, biscuit. 

Remark. — In unaccented final syllables, y represents 
this sound, as in city, p)ity. Pretty, ivomen, busy, 
business and England are anomalous. 

2. Diphthongal i, as in pine, final, high, die, height, 

disguise, isle, aisle. 

Remark. — In final accented syllables, 3^ represents this 
sound, as fly, deny, fortify^ aye, eye. 



20 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

25. The letter o represents three sounds, viz: 

1. Short o, as in not^ knoivledge^ sorry^ hond^ knotty, 

Remakk. — After lo and qii^ a represents this sound, 
as in what^ wasp^ ivas^ quadrant^ quantity, 

2. Long 0, as in ode^ dooi\ coal^ foe^ four^ yeoman^ 

own; luJioUy^ coast ^ folk-, oats^ history^ locomo- 
tive. Beau is anomalous. 

3. Open 6 as in foi% storm ^ corpse^ off^ gone, moss, 

broth, lost. 

Remark. — Before or after iv or u, or before I followed 
by another consonant, a represents this sound, as in 
war, quart, haul, hall, halt, altar, aid, bawl. 

26. The letter u represents four sounds, viz: 

1. Short ii, as in up, cut, hurry, under, current. 

Remark. — In such words as come, son, and in the 
ending ion, very often represents this sound. 

2. Long close u, as in rule, fruit, rue, sure. 

Remark. — 0, 00 and ou frequently represent this 
sound, as in do, move, moon, route, croup, soup, group, 

3. Obtuse u as in put, bush, erudite, pull. 

Remark. — 0, 00, ou, sometimes represent this sound, 
as in good, could, wolf, woman, 

4. Diphthongal ii, as in cube, fume, tune, pure, cure. 

Remark. — Eu and eiu frequently represent this sound, 
as in feud, new, Europe^ ewe. 



USES OF LETTERS. 21 

27. The letter c represents two sounds, viz. 

1. C has the hard sound of k or q before a, o or i6, 

as can^ cot, cup, 

2. C has the hissing sound of s before e, i or y, as 

in cent^ city, cyst, cinder, cider, cycle. 

Remark. — Final c is hard. When c is followed by 
mute e, however, it has the hissing sound of s, as in 
face, dance, juice, 

28. The letter g represents two sounds, viz: 

1. G has its hard sound when it is final, or when it 

is initial before a, or %i, as in gag, gog, gull, 

2. G has the soft sound of j before e, ^ or ?/, as in 

gem, gist, gymnast. 

Remark 1. — Final g is made soft by inserting mute 
e, as in George, gorge, loage, rage, stage. Initial g 
before e or i is made hard by inserting u or h, as in 
g\iess, guilt, gherkin, ghee. 

Remark 2. — G is hard before e or i, in the following 
words: Get, gear, gill (of a fish), giddy, gift, gig, gild, 
gimp, girth, girl, give, gibber. 

29. The letter s represents two sounds, viz: 

1. Initial s has a sharp, hissing sound as in son, 
set, sir, such. 



22 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

Kemark. — Final s has a hissing sound after p, t^ k^ 
/, jp/i, and toneless tJi, as in whips ^ sits^ books ^ ifs^ 
nymphs^ truths^ and the words canvas^ tJiis^ thus^ us, gas^ 
yes^ pus. Final ss has a hissing sound always. Before 
long u, s = SH, as in sure^ sumac ^ sugar. 

2. S has a soft buzzing sound — 

a. When it follows a vowel or voiced consonant, as 

ivas^ is^ buds J eggs^ rubs, eaves , paths, burrs, 
lulls, songs, 

b. When it is placed between two vowels, as in 

roses, houses, resist, 

c. In verbs ending in se, as in use, ease, rise. 

Remark. — S or z cannot unite in the same syllable with 

z, s, shy ch, or x, 

30. The letter n represents two sounds, viz: 

1. Dental n as in man, inn, sun, nun. 

Remark. — ^N is also a dental in an unaccented sylla- 
ble before the sound of g or k; as, congressional. 

2, Guttural ^, in an accented syllable before k, ch, 

(hard), q or x, and also before g followed by 
a, e or I, as in ink, anchor, tranquil, anxious, 
diphthongal, longer, angle, 

31. The letter w represents two sounds, viz: 

1. W is a consonant before a vowel, as in we, ivine, 
tivice. 



USES OF LETTERS. 23 

Re^iark. — After g^ q or s before a vowel, ti repre- 
sents the sound of the consonant iv^ as in language^ 
question^ desuetude, 

2. W is a vowel after e or o, and has the power of 
close 00, as in hnoio^ noiu, feiv, 

Remark. — W represents the vanish in diphthongal o, 
as in groiv, soiv. 

33. The letter y represents two sounds, viz: 

1. Before a vowel, y is a consonant, as in yes, your^ 

yelloiu. 

Remark. — After ?, ?i, st or v, i before another vowel 
represents the consonant sound of ?/, as in million 
million, bestial, behavior. 

2. Y is used as a final vowel, as in bulky, defy, and 

also to form the digraph oy in bo}^ 
I®" See under i. 

34. The letter x represents three sounds, viz: 

1. At the end of a word or of an accented syllable, 

x=A:s, as in tax, vex, exodus, exercise, exoteric, 

2. X = gz between two vowels before an accented 

syllable, as in exact, example, exonerate, 

8. Initial x has the power of z, as in xebec, xiphoid^ 
xanthic, anxiety. 



24 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

Exercise. 

35. Let the pupil give the power of each variable 
letter in the folloioing extract and tell how it should he 
marked : 

From The Occultation of Orion. 

Dictate : 

Beneath the sky's triumphal arch 

This music sounded like a march, 
And with its chorus seemed to be 

Preluding some great tragedy. 
Sirius was rising in the east: 

And, slow ascending one by one, 
The kindling constellations shone. 

Begirt with many a blazing star, 
Stood the great giant Algebar, 

Orion, hunter of the beast. 
His sword hung gleaming by his side, 

And, on his arm, the lion's hide 
Scattered across the midnight air 

The golden radiance of its hair.— -L ongf ell oiv. 

ORTHOGRAPHIC DEVICES. 

36. As the English language has been developed and 

perfected during the last five centuries, more 
sounds have been distinguished than there are 
letters to represent. This deficiency is supplied 
partly by three devices, viz: 

I. The Use of Digraphs, 

n. The Use of Mute e, and — 

in. The Doubling of Consonants. 

37. A Digraph is a combination of two letters 
used to represent an element of speech. 



THE USE OP DIGRAPHS. 25 

I. THE USE OF DIGRAPHS. 

38. There are five digraphs in common use, viz: oi 

or oy, ou or ow\ tli^ cli and sh. 

39. The digraphic combination oi or oy is used to 

represent the diphthong in o?7, hoy, 

40. The digraphic combination ou or oio is used to 

represent the diphthong in out^ owl, 

Kemark. — In Enghsh words hke bounds founds 
ground^ ou is a diphthong ; but in French words like 
route ^ surtout^ croups it represents long close u. In words 
like soul^ shouldei^ bought the it represents the vanish of 
long o. 

41. The digraphic combination th is used to represent 

two correlated sounds, viz: 

a. In demonstrative words, such as X)ronouns^ defini- 

tives^ adverbs of time and j^lace, the preposi- 
tions loith and beneath, in the plurals of bath^ 
dotJi^ lath^ moth^ r)iouth, oath, j)ath, and 
ivreath, and at the end of verbs, th represents 
a voiced consonant, as in breathe, sheathe, 

b. At the beginning of nouns, verbs and adjectives, 

and at the end of all other nouns than the 
eight in (a), th represents a breathed conso- 
nant. 



26 COMPLETE COUESE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

Examples. 

a. Thou, thy, this, there, breathe, mouth. 

b. Thorn, think, thin, truths, throat, thank. 

42. The digraphic combination ch is used to express 

three different sounds, viz: 

a. In common Enghsh words, ch represents hard 

j, as in churchy cJiild^ chill, wliicli^ such, 
much, brooch, chime, chose, chance. 

Remark. — After a short vowel, ch is frequently 
preceded by t, as in catch, fetch, witch, ivatch, crutch, 

b. In words of French origin, the digraphic 

combination ch represents sh, as in chaise, 
machine, cache, chagrin, chivalry, 

c. In words of Greek origin, the digraphic combi- 

nation CH = k, as in chord, choir, chorus, 
cholera, 

43. The digraphic combination sh is used to 

represent a single sound, as in she, shall, 
sash, ivish. 

When c, s, sc or t comes before e or i followed 
by a vowel after an accented syllable, the 
ci, ce, si, se, sci, or ti represents the 
sound of SH, as in ocean, m.usician, conscience, 
nauseous, mission, notion. But si or zi 
between two vowels, represents a correlated 
soft sound, as in vision, brazier, azure. 



THE USE MUTE E. 27 

11. THE USE OF MUTE E. 

44. Mute e is a device in spelling used to fix the 
powers of other letters, viz: 

1. Mute e is used after a single consonant to show 
that the preceding vowel has its name sound, as in 
mate^ mete^ mite^ mote^ mute, crave, strive, safe, fife, 
rope, tithe, 

Kemark. — In hade and have, and in many words ending 
in ivE, ONE, iLE, or iNE, mute e is misleading, as in strive 
and live, stone and glove, gentile and futile, columhine and 
genuine. 

2. Mute e is used after c, g, s, and th, viz: 

a. Mute e makes c like s, as in face, rice, dance^ 

prijice, 
h. Mute e makes g like j, as in judge, wage, rage, 

stage. 

c. Except in verbs ending in ise, or use, mute e 

shows that s has its hissing sound, as in dense, 
rinse, pretense, ahuse, rise, 

d. After th, mute e distinguishes verbs from nouns, 

and shows that th has its voiced sound, as in 
hatJi, bath^e; h r eath, bb^batuf.; sJieath, sue, athe, 

III. THE DOUBLING OF CONSONANTS. 

45. Between two vowels after an accented syllable, a 
consonant is often doubled to show that the preceding 



28 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

vowel has its short sound, as later and latter^ mating, 
and matting ; banner^ robber^ letter. 

Remark. — Final s is generally doubled to represent 
the hissing sound of s, as in mass, mess^ oniss, moss^ muss. 

46. Exercises. 

1. Let the pupil analyze the following icoi'ds and show 
hoiu each sound is represented: 

Chapel, channel, shovel, moth, length, branch, machin- 
ery, chaff, think, manner, Missouri, their, them, with, 
strength, spherical, minion, thought, tranquil, voyage, 
Europe, question, conquer, setting, banner, congress, 
whistling, ocean, nauseate, Asiatic, negotiation, extinguish, 
excursion, conversion. 

2. Let the pxipil p>oint out the orthographic devices 

in the folloiving extract: 

From "T/i6 Chambered Nautilus,'' 
Dictate : 

Build thee more stately mansions, O my soul, 

As the swift seasons roll! 

Leave thy low vaulted past! 
Let each new temple, nobler than the last, 
Shut thee from heaven, with a dome more vast, 

Till thou at length art free. 
Leaving thine earthgrown shell by life's unresting sea! 

— Holmes. 

3. Let the p>upil select from his studies ivords difficult 
to pronounce^ syllabicate and accent them, and mark the 
power of each variable letter. 



TABLE OF VARYING SOUNDS. 



29 



a S 

arm 

at 

air 

ale 

any 



all 
what 



46. Table of Varying Sounds. 



e's 



rs 



ere 
vein 
met 

me pique 
pretty pin 
pine 



her fir 



Vowels, 
o's u's 



or 

not 

go 

come 

work 

do 

wolf 



ys 



bury 

business city 
my 



but 

burn 

rule 

put 

cube 



w s 



myrrh 



cow 

know 

few 



X s c s 

tax cut 
exact cent 
xiphoid 



II. Consonants, 
g's ch*s n's 

go child inn 

gem chaise ink 

chord caiion 



s's 


th's 


sun 


this 


is 


thin 



sure 



30 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

THE PARTS, FORM, RANK AND STRUCTURE 
OF SENTENCES. 

47. A Sentence is a combination of words expressing a 

thought. 

Examples. 

Beauty is an all-prevaihng presence. The greatest 
truths are wronged if not linked with beauty. 

Parts of Sentences. 

48. The constituent parts of a sentence are called Ele- 
ments. 

49. The essential elements of a sentence are the 
Subject, the Predicate, and the Copula. 

Kemakk. — The predicate and copula are often united 
in one word; as, John ^lu^i^v^ ^=z John is sleeping. 

50. The Subject of a sentence is the word naming the 
person or thing of which something is thought. 

51. The Predicate of a sentence is the word expressing 
what is thought of the person or thing named by its 
subject. 

52. The Copula is some form of the verb to be used 
to join the predicate to the subject. 

Examples. 
Fire burns. Eain falls. Snow melts. Iron is a metal. 
Flowers are beautiful. 



PARTS AND FORMS OF SENTENCES. 31 

Subjects : Fire, Rain, Snow, Iron, Flowers. 
Predicates : burns, falls, melts, metal, beautiful. 
Copulas : is, are. 

53. Exercise. 

Have pupils select the essential elements from the 
folloiuing stanza : 

The red rose cries, ''She is near, She is near;" 
And the white rose weeps, "She is late;" 

The larkspur listens, "I hear, I hear;" 
And the hly whispers, ''I wait. " 

54. The modifiers of the sentence are the Adjective 
Element, the Objective Element, and the Adverbial 
Element. 

Remark. — For definitions and illustrations of the use 
of these modifiers, see Part III, pp. — 153-154. 

55. Sentences are classed in regard to Form, Rank 
and Structure. 

Forms of Sentences. 
A sentence may take any one of four forms : 

56. A Declarative sentence is the form of w^ords in 
which a statement is made. 

57. An Interrogative sentence is the form of words 
in which a question is asked. 

58. An Imperative sentence is the form of words in 
which a command or an entreaty is expressed. 



32 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

59. An Exclamatory sentence is the form of words 
in which strong feehng is expressed. 

Remakk. — When two or more of these forms are 
combined, the sentence is mixed; as, If you approve^ 
sign and return; If 5 horses cost $575^ lioio much ivill 
17 horses cost? 

Rank of Sentences. 
Sentences are either principal or subordinate : 

60. A Principal sentence expresses the main thought 
and is independent. 

61. A Subordinate sentence is dependent and is used 
as an element of the sentence upon which it depends. 

Structure of Sentences. 

62. Sentences are in structure Simple, Compound, 
or Complex. 

63. A Simple sentence contains but one subject and 
one predicate. 

64. A Compound sentence contains two or more sen- 
tences of equal rank united by a coordinate conjunction. 

65. A Complex sentence contains one or more principal 
sentences modified by one or more subordinate sentences. 

E-EMAKK. — Compound sentences are sometimes con- 
tracted ; — Complex sentences are sometimes abridged. 



SYNOPSIS OF SENTENCES. 33 

66. Exercise. 
Let the 2>upil tell the form^ rank and structure of the 
se?iterices in the folloiving stanzas: 

Little I ask ; my wants are few ; 

I only wish a hut of stone 
(A very plain brown stone will do), 

That I may call my own ; — 
And close at hand is such a one 
In yonder street that fronts the sun. 

I care not much for gold or land ; — 
Give me a mortgage here and there, — 

Some good bank stock, — some note of hand, — 
Or trifling railroad share. 

I only ask that fortune send 

A little more than I can spend. 

67. SYNOPSIS OF SENTENCES. 

I. Elements : 

1. Essential; subject, predicate, copula, 

2. Modifiers ; adjective, objective, adverbial. 

II. Forms: 



1. Declarative 

2. Interroo^ative 

3. Imperative 

4. Exclamatory 

III. Rank: 

1 . Principal 

2. Subordinate 

IV. Structure: 



■ 



Mixed 



1. Simple 

2. Compound, (contracted) 

3. Complex, (abridged) 



34 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

PUNCTUATION. 

68. Punctuation is the art of separating written 
language and indicating the divisions by means of 
proper marks. 

69. The marks used in punctuation are — 

1. The Period (.) 

2. The Interrogation-point (?) 

3. The Exclamation-point (!) 



4. 


The Colon 


(0 


5. 


The Semi colon 


(;) 


6. 


The Comma 


(.) 




Parentheses 





8. 


Quotation-marks 


("") 


9. 


The Dash 


(-) 


10. 


The Hyphen 


(-) 


11. 


The Apostrophe 


(') 


12. 


The Caret 


(a) 



RULES FOR THE USE OF MARKS OF 
PUNCTUATION. 

I. Rule for the use of the period. 

70. Place a (.) after every declarative and imperative 
sentence ; also after initial letters, titles, Roman Numerals, 
headings and signatures. 



PUNCTUATION. 35 



Examples. 
Fire burns. Let the lire burn. J. H. Sliields, Esq. 
Prof, John Fish, L L. D. The Period. Henry YIII. 
was an arbitrary king. Yours truly, Grover Cleveland. 

II. Rule for the use of the interrogation-point. 

71. Place an interrogation-point (?) after every inter- 
rogative word or sentence. 

Examples. 
Does not fire burn? You can do it, eh? Where be 
your gibes now? your gambols ? your songs ? your 
bursts of merriment that were wont to set the table in 
a roar? 

III. Rule for the use of the exclamation-point. 

72. Place an exclamation-point ( !) after ever}^ exclama- 
tory sentence, and also after interjections or other words 
used to express strong feeling. 

Examples. 
How the fire burns I Alas! Ah! Fie! 

What a piece of work is a man! How noble in 
reason ! how infinite in faculties ! in form and moving 
how express and admirable ! in action, how like an angel ! 
in apprehension, how like a god! the beauty of the world! 
the paragon of animals! 



36 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

IV. Rule for the use of the colon. 

73. Place a colon between the balanced parts of a 
compound sentence, and also before particulars enu- 
merated, or words used to illustrate. 

Examples. 
A brute arrives at a point of perfection that he can 
never pass : in a few years he has all the endowments of 
which he is capable. 

The rich man's wealth is his strong cit}^: the destruction 
of the poor is their poverty. 

The box contained the following articles: a bible , an old 
ambrott/pe^ a pair of spectacles^ a luithered bouquet^ and 
some moth-eaten letters. • 

V. Rule for the use of the semicolon. 

74. Place a semicolon between the chief parts of a 
compound sentence, when its less important parts are 
separated by commas. Also before as, when a word or 
sentence is used for illustration. 

Examples. 

Shall morning follow morning, for you, but not for 
them ; and the dawn rise to watch, far away, these 
frantic dances of death ; but no dawn rise to breathe 
upon those living banks of wild violets, and woodbine, 
and roses? 

This is a Senate of equals ; of men of individual 



PUNCTUATION. 37 



honor and personal character. I offer m3^self, Sh% as a 
match for no man ; I throw the challenge of debate at 
no man's feet. 

A noun is the name of any person, place or thing; 
as, George^ Chicago^ 'knife, 

VI. Rule for the use of the comma. 

75, Place a comma between tlie minor parts of sen- 
tences to indicate omitted words, transpositions, parenthe- 
ses, and to separate like parts of speech, or words, phrases 
or clauses in the same relation. 

Examiples. 

The clauses of a compound sentence, if they contain 
commas within themselves, are commonly separated from 
each other by the semicolon ; if they contain semicolons, 
they are commonly separated from each other by com- 
mas. 

But not to me returns da}", or the sweet approach of 
even or morn, or sight of vernal bloom, or summer's 
rose, or flocks, or herds, or human face divine. 

Brabantio, a rich senator of Venice, had a fair 
daughter, the gentle Desdemona. 

Holly, mistletoe, red berries, ivy, turkeys, all vanished 
instantl}^ 

The man who absconded, has been captured. 



G8 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

Remark. — We give but one rule for the use of each 
punctuation mark, for the reason that when a pupil 
needs a measure of accuracy, he is not able to apply 
more than one rule at a time. 

VII. Rule for the use of parentheses. 

74. Place a parenthesis before and after explanatory 

words. 

Examples. 

If the clause is additional (that is, if it merely adds a 
thought without limiting the meaning of the antecedent), 
it may be converted into an independent clause. 

VIII. Rule for the use of quotation-marks. 

75. Place words in direct quotation within quotation- 
marks. 

Examples. 

"Civility," said Lady Montaigne, ''costs nothing and 
buys everything.'' 

"Samuel," said James the miller, "the grist will be 
ready to-morrow." 

IX. Rule for the use of the dash. 

76. Place a dash as an additional mark of punctua- 
tion where the thought is broken off, or continued 
in the line below. 

Examples. 
He had no malice in his mind, — no ruffles on his 
shirt. 



PUNCTUATION. 



Grammar consists of four parts : 

I. Orthography, or the spelling of words ; 
II. Etymology, or the composition of words ; 
III. Syntax, or the concord and government of 
words, and — 

TV. Prosody, or th^ laws of versification. 
I®" Do not use dashes for parentheses or commas. 

X. Rule for the use of the hyphen. 

77. Place a hyphen between the parts of a compound 
word, or at the end of a word when a part of it is 
carried to the beginning of the next line. 

Examples. 

Post-Dispatch. Globe-Democrat. Sober-minded. 

It was the Hall of William Pufus, the hall which had 
resounded with acclamations at the inauguration of thir- 
ty kings. 

XI. Rule for the use of the apostrophe. 

78. Place an apostrophe to show the omission of 
letters, or to indicate the possessive case of nouns. 

Examples. 
I've found the knife you're looking for. 
It is woman's work to make women's wear. 
The boy's books are at the Boys' School. 



40 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

XII. Rule for the use of the caret. 

79. Place a caret between words or letters to indicate 
omitted words or letters. 

Examples. 
I met A man and a liorse yesterdAj. 

Napoleon's amusements all took a same direcA^on. 

80. A Paragraph contains all the sentences 

relating to some definite phase of a subject, and its 

first line beojins a little farther to the rio-ht than the 

other lines. 

81. Exercises. 

1. Let the pupil separate the following words into 
paragraphs and sentences, and use proper marks 
to show the divisions: 

Let us rejoice that we behold this day Let us be 
thankful that we have lived to see the bright and 
happy breaking of the auspicious morn which com- 
mences the third century of the history of New 
England Auspicious indeed bringing a happiness 
beyond the common allotment of Providence to men 
full of present joy and gilding with bright beams the 
prospect of futurity is the dawn that awakens us to 
the commemoration of the landing of the Pilgrims 
Living at an epoch which naturally marks the progress 
of the history of our native land we have come 
hither to celebrate the great event with which that 
history commenced Forever honored be this the place 



PUNCTUATION. 41 



of our fathers refuge Forever remembered be the 
day which saw them weary and distressed broken in 
everything but spirit poor in all but faith and courage 
at last secure from the dangers of wintry seas and 
impressing this shore with the first foot steps of 
civilized man. 

2. Have pupils separate and punctuate: 

Of all our faculties that of speech is perhaps least 
cultivated yet is most susceptible of cultivation and 
pays best the pains bestowed upon it Love sincere 
earnest practical supreme continuous everlasting is due 
to our Creator The teacher arriving at this moment 
put an end to our folly We should regard pity succor 
defend the poor He traveled to Boston she to Port- 
land As there is a hollow worldly happiness so there 
is a foolish worldly wisdom He who builds a house 
or worries is left with a lank purse Economy is no 
disgrace for it is better to live on a little than to 
outlive a great deal My friend rose at six o'clock he 
breakfasted sat down to write continued writing till 
twelve and walked to his brothers. 

Know then this truth enough for man to know 
Virtue alone is happiness below 

3. Let the teacher write upon the blackboard 
selections without points and require pupils to 
paragraph and punctuate them. 

Remark. — The teacher will find good examples for 
this purpose in First or Second Readers. 



42 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

CAPITALIZATION. 

82. Rules for the use of capital letters. 

I. Begin with capitals the first word of every 
sentence and of each line of poetry. 

II. Begin with capitals the names of persons, 
places, titles, particular objects, the da3^s of 
the week and the months of the year. 

III. Begin with capitals the names of political, 

social, scientific, literary or religious associa- 
tions. 

IV. Begin with capitals the titles of books, import- 

ant historical events, headings, and the chief 
words in mottoes or inscriptions. 

V. Begin with capitals proper adjectives and the 
first word of a direct quotation. 

VI. The pronoun I and the interjection O are 
always in capitals. 

Kemark: — For examples in capitalization, examine 
this and other books. 

83. Written Exercises. 

1. Point out the capital letters on a given page 
and tell why they are used. 

2. Write five sentences using the names of days 
of the week and of the months. 



CAPITALIZATION . 43 



Model. — During May the teacher comes on Mondays. 

3. Write five sentences using the names of persons 
with titles. 

Model.— Gen. ^Y, T. Sherman, U. S. A. 

4. Write five sentences using geographical names. 
Model. — The Andes are in Europe. 

5. Write five sentences about prominent objects. 

Model. — The corner stone of Bunker Hill Monument 
was laid June 17^ 1825, fifty 3^ears after the battle 
of Bunker Hill. 

6. Write five sentences about sects, parties or 
societies. 

Model. — The Whig Party elected Zachary Taylor 
President of the United States. 

7. Write five sentences about prominent writings. 
Model. — Ir\ing wrote ''The Legend of Sleepy Hollow." 

8. Write five sentences naming important historical 
events. 

Model. — Wellington won the Battle of Waterloo. 

9. Write five sentences using mottoes or inscriptions. 
Model. — Our motto is : Let us Live for the Children. 

10. Write five sentences using proper adjectives and 
the words I and O. 

Model. — I have just read an English novel. 



44 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

LETTER WRITING. 

84. A Letter is a written or printed communication 
from one person or body to another. 

85. Letters are of t\;vo kinds, familiar letters and 
business letters. 

86. A formal letter consists of six parts: 

1. The Heading, 4. The Body of the Letter, 

2. The Address, 5. The Complimentary Ending, 

3. The Salutation, 6. The Signature. 

Besides these, the folding of the letter and the 
superscription upon the envelope need attention. 

87. The Heading. 
The heading should give the place and - date of 
writing. If the letter is written from a city, the 
number of the house and the name of the street 
should be written on one line, and the name of the 
city and State and the date on the next line. If 
written from the country, the name of the County 
and State should be given. The heading should be 
written in the right upper corner of the page, not 
too near the top. 

88. The Address. 
A business letter should contain the title and name 
of the person or body to whom it is addressed, and 
also the number of the house and name of the street 



LETTER WRITING. 45 



with the post office to which it is to be senk The 
name and address may be omitted in a famihar letter. 

Before the name appropriate titles should be placed, 
such as, 

Mr. in addressing a man. 

Mrs. (^mistress) in addressing a married woman or 
widow. 

Miss in addressing an unmarried woman. 

Messrs. in addressing a firm. 

Dr. in addressing a person who has any of the 
titles M. D., Ph.D., D. D., L L. D. 

Rev. or The Rev. in addressing a minister if his 
christian initials are given ; if not Rev. Mr. or Rev. 
Dr. should be used. 

Esq. may be placed after the names of lawyers or 
other gentlemen, in which case no title should be 
placed before the name. 

l@"One title only should be used. 

The address should begin on the left on the line 
below the one on which the date is written, and 
should occupy two or three lines, each beginning a 
little farther to the right. Thus: 

Messrs, J, H. Shields & Co., 
532 N, Broadway, 
St. Louis^ Mo. 



46 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

89. The Salutation. , 

The Salutation is an introduction to the body of 
the letter expressing a courteous or affectionate greet- 
ing. It should begin on the line below the Address, 
about as far to the right as the number of the street 
is written and should be followed by the body of the 
letter on the same line. 

The salutation consists of Sii% Dear /Sir, Gentlemen^ 
My dear Sir^ Dear Father^ Dear Miss^ Dear Madam^ 
My dear Ned^ and other similar expressions. 

90. The Body of the Letter. 

The Body of the letter contains the matter of the 
communication. 

A business letter should be concise, stating in 
unambiguous language the points involved. 

The reply to a business letter should state its date 
and refer to its contents specifically. 

91. The Complimentary Ending. 
The Complimentary Ending should be a truthful 
expression of good faith, respect, or affection. It 
usually consists of truly ^ respectfully^ or affectionately 
combined with yours. When yours follows the adverbs 
tridy^ respectfully, or affectionately^ Very is sometimes 
placed before them. Thus: Yours truly ^ or Very truly 
yours ; Yours respectfully^ or Very respectfully yours. 



LETTER WRITING. 47 



92. The Signature. 

The Signature is the name of the person or body 
writing the letter and should be written in full on the 
line below the Complimentary Ending, It should begin 
near the middle of the line. 

If the letter is written by an officer, his official title 
should follow. If written for another person, the name 
or initials of the writer should follow the signature on 
the line below preceded by the word By. If the letter 
is written by a woman, Miss or Mrs, in parentheses, 
should be placed before her signature. 

93. Folding and Enclosing. 

The edges of the note or letter paper on which 
the letter is written, should be kept even in folding. 

A sheet of letter paper is folded one-half its length, 
which makes it the size of note paper. Then, if the 
form of the envelope is square fold the paper half its 
length; but if oblong envelopes are used, fold the paper 
one-third its length. Keep the folded edge toward the 
left and put the letter into the envelope with the right hand. 

94. The Superscription. 

The superscription should begin at the left, a little 
below the middle of the envelope. The first line should 
contain the name and title ; the second line the number 
and street^ if addressed to a person residing in a city, 



48 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

if not, simply the name of the post-office town; the third line 
should contain the name of the City or County; and 
the fourth, the name of the State or country. The 
stamp should occupy the right upper corner. Each 
line of the superscription should begin farther toward 
the right, so as to make it look symmetrical. Thus : 









STAMP. 


Hon. L. E. Wolfe, 

State Superintendent of Schools^ 

City of Jefferson, Mo. 



95. Model Business Letter. 

5007 Washington Avenue, 

St. Louis, July 25, 1891. 
Hon. Wm. T. Harris, LL. D., 
Bureau of Education, 

Washington, D. C. 
Dear Sir: — Please send to me at the above address 
any documents you may have issued relating to education. 
I am interested in the advancement of the p)eople in intel- 
lectual and morcd culture, and should appreciate very 
highly any documents ivhich you have thought ivorthy of 
publication. 

Very respectfully yours, 

Bussell Allen. 



LETTER WRITING. 49 

96. Exercises. 

1. Write a letter to an absent friend. 

2. Write a letter to some business house applying for a 
situation. 

3. Write a letter answering an advertisement. 

4. Write a letter ordering a bill of groceries. 

5. Write a letter introducing a stranger to friends. 

97. Formal Notes. 

Formal notes are generally invitations and replies to 
invitations to attend social gatherings. The note begins 
with the name of the person or persons sending it, and 
the place and date are i3ut at the left on the line below. 
Thus : 

Mr, and Mrs. Fairfax request the pleasure of Miss 
Browning's compariy on Thursday next^ at four o'clock. 

1907 Lucas Place, April 30, 

Acceptance of Invitation. 
Miss Broivning accepts ivith p)leasure the invitation of 
Mr, and Mrs. Fairfax for Thursday next, 
1734 Vandeventer Place, May 2, 

Invitation not accepted. 
Miss Broivning regrets that the serious illness of her 
sister prevents her acceptance of the invitation of Mr. and 
Mrs, Fairfax for Thursday next, 

1734 Vandeventer Place, May 2, 



50 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

98. Exercises. 

1. Require pupils to write notes of invitation, and 
notes accepting and declining invitations. 

2. Kequire pupils to write advertisements. They should 
consult the newspapers for proper forms. 

3. Require pupils to write imaginative letters about 
inanimate things. 

99. Topical Review. 

English Grammar is the study of what? What three 
things does language culture embrace? How is gram- 
mar usually divided? Of what does speech consist? 
Name the two classes of sounds. What is a vowel? 
Name the long vowels ; — the short vowels ; — the shade 
vowels. What is a syllable? — a diphthong? Name the 
diphthongs and give their elements. Into what two 
classes are the vowels divided? What is a consonant? 
How are the consonants classed? Write the table of 
elementary sounds. 

What is speech? What are letters? Y/hat is an 
alphabet? What 14 letters have one unvarying sound? 
What 12 letters are variously used? Give the four 
sounds of a ; — the three sounds of e ; — the two sounds of 
i ; — the three sounds of o ; — the four sounds of u ; — the 
two sounds of c; — the two sounds of g; — the two 
sounds of s ; — the two sounds of n ; — the two sounds of 
w; — the two sounds of y; — the three sounds of x. 



TOPICAL REVIEW. 51 



Name the orthographic devices. What is a digraph? 
Name the digraphs. What two sounds does th rep- 
resent? What three sounds does ch represent? What 
combinations often represent sh? Name the two uses 
of mute e. AYhy are consonants often doubled? Give 
the table of varying sounds. 

What is a sentence? What are the parts of a sen- 
tence? What is the subject?— the predicate? — -the cop- 
ula? Name the modifiers of the sentence. How are 
sentences classed? Name the four forms of sentences. 
When is a sentence mixed ? When is a sentence 
principal? — subordidate? How are sentences classed in 
regard to structure? When is a sentence simple? — com- 
pound? — complex? Write the synopsis. 

What is punctuation? Make the marks of punctua- 
tion. Give the rule for the period ; — the interrogation- 
point; — the exclamation-point; — the colon;— the semi- 
colon ; — the comma ; — parentheses ; — quotation-marks ; 
— the dash; — the hyphen; — the apostrophe; — the caret. 
What is a paragraph? 

Give the six rules for the use of capital letters. 

What is a letter? How many kinds of letters are 
there? What are the parts of formal letters? What is 
the heading? — address? — salutation? — the body of the 
letter? — ^the complimentary ending? — the signature? How 
should a letter be folded? How should the super- 
scription be placed? What is a formal note? 



52 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

SYNOPTICAL REVIEW. 

General definitions : grammar, phases of language 
culture, general divisions. 

Elements of words: vowels, long vowels, short 
vowels, shade vowels, syllables, diphthongs, groups of 
vowels ; consonants, semivowels, spirants, mutes ; table 
of elementary sounds. 

Nature and power of letters: 14 letters with unvary- 
ing sounds, 12 letters with varying sounds, four sounds 
of a, three sounds of e, two sounds of i, three sounds 
of o, four sounds of u, two sounds of c, two sounds of 
g, two sounds of s, two sounds of n, two sounds of w, 
two sounds of y, three sounds of x. 

Orthographic devices : digraphs, the proper diphthongs 
oy and oio^ two sounds of tli^ three sounds of ch, the 
digraph sh, various ways of representing sh ; the use of 
mute e to indicate name sounds and to modify c, g, s and 
th ; doubling of consonants to show short sound of vowels ; 
table of varying sounds. 

The sentence: parts, principal elements, modifiers; 
form, declarative, interrogative, imperative, exclamatory, 
mixed ; rank, principal, subordinate ; structure, simple, 
compound, complex, contracted, abridged; synopsis. 

Punctuation: marks of punctuation, use of period, 

interrogation-point, exclamation-point, colon, semicolon, 

comma, parentheses, quotation-marks, the dash, the 
hyphen, the apostrophe, the caret. 

Capitalization : six rules for the use of capitals. 

Letter Writing: heading, address, salutation, body 
of letter, complimentary ending, signature, folding and 
enclosing, superscription; formal notes. 



PARTS OP SPEECH. 53 



PART II. 

CLASSIFICATION M INFLECTION. 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

100. A Part of Speech is one of the eight classes into 
which language is divided. 

10 1. The Parts of Speech are the noun, the pro- 
noun, the verb, the adjective, the adverb, the prep- 
osition, the conjunction and the interjection. 

102. A Noun is a word which names any person, 
place or thing. 

Examples. 
Boy, girl, tree ; Boston, Chicago, St. Louis ; Henry, 
flock, goodness, piety. 

103. Exercises. 

Have pupils select the nouns from the foUoiving extracts: 

1. All sorts of boys were represented; the boy 
who was drowned while bathing, or fishing, or gather- 
ing pond- lilies against the will of his parents, or 
who came to grief while prowling around with his 
gun, when he was supposed to be at school. 



54 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

Dictation : 

2. This is the ship of pearl which poets feign 
Sails the unshadowed main,- — 
The venturous bark that flings 
On the sweet summer wind its purpled wings 
In gulfs enchanted, where the siren sings, 

And coral reefs lie bare. 
When the cold sea-maids rise to sun their shining 
hair. 

loj. Nouns are divided into three classes: 

I. Proper Nouns, 

IL Common Nouns, including — 

1. Collective Nouns, 

2. Abstract Nouns, 

3. Material Nouns, and — 
III. Participial Nouns. 

104. A Proper Noun is the name of any particular 
person, place or thing. 

Examples. 
Bayard Taylor, Stratford-on-Avon, Shaw's Garden. 

105. Exercise. 

Have jpupils select the Proi^er Nouns from these sentences: 

1. The Rocky Mountains are in North America. 

2. John Milton wrote "Samson Agonistes." 

3. The Declaration of Independence is the charter of 

our liberties. 

4. The First National Bank of New York is pros- 

perous. 



COMMON NOUNS. 55 



io6. Written Exercises. 

1. Write five sentences containing proper nouns nam- 

ing prominent persons. 
Model. — Alfred Tennyson is poet-laureate of England. 

2. Write five sentences containing the names of well- 

known objects. 
Model. — Battle Monument is in Baltimore. 

3. Write five sentences containing the names of very 

large cities. 
Model. — London is the center of the land hemisphere. 

4. Write five sentences containing the names of noted 

schools. 
Model. — Harvard University is the oldest college in the 
United States. 

5. Write five sentences naming great statesmen. 
Model. — Thomas Jefferson wrote the Declaration of 

Independence. 

6. Write sentences containing the names of great gen- 
erals, great im^entors, and great navigators. 

107. A Common Noun is a word which names any 
one or all of a kind or class of persons or things. 

Examples. 
Book, slates, table, sofas, chairs. 

The follomng three kinds of nouns which name indi- 
viduals, are included under common nouns. 



56 COMPLBTJEj' COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

io8. An Abstract Noun is the name of a quality con- 
sidered apart from the object to which it belongs. 

Examples. 
Sweetness, mercy, truth, wisdom, strength. 
log. A Collective Noun is the name of a group of 
animals or things, or a body of persons. 

Examples. 
Furniture, swarm, herd, tribe, jury, congregation, 
no. A Material Noun is the name of a material sub- 
stance. 

Examples. 

Iron, wood, stone, dust, silver, brick, sand. 

III. Exercises. 

Have pupils select the nouns and tell their kind: 

1. The friends of reason and the guides of youth, 
Whose language breathed the eloquence of truth ; 
Whose life, beyond preceptive wisdom, taught 
The great in conduct and the pure in thought; 
These now by memory to fame consigned. 

Still speak and act, the models of mankind. 

Dictation : 

2. Trust me, Clara Yere de Yere, 

From yon blue heavens above us blent, 
The gardener Adam and his yvite 

Smile at the claims of long descent. 
Howe'er it be, it seems to me, 

'Tis only noble to be good ; 
Kind hearts are more than coronets, 

And simple faith than Norman blood. 



THE PARTICIPIAL NOUN. 57 

1X2. A Participial Noun is a word which names an 
act or state. 

Examples. 
Digging potatoes is hard work. To love is pleasant. 

Eemark. — Participial nouns usually end in ing; as, 
knighing^ writing^ talking. But sometimes the infinitive 
with to is so used; as, to laugh ^ to ivrite^ to talk. 

113. Exercises. 

Have 2')upils select the nouns and tell their kind: 

1. The love of knowledo;e comes with readino;. 

2. To be loved makes not to love again. 

3. True knowledo-e consists in knowino; thino^s. 

4. Learning to read requires much labor. 

5. Writing letters to friends is a useful exercise. 

6. There is pleasure in looldng at the clouds. 

7. He sat watching the clouds and thinking of the 
past. 

8. It is more difficult to keep wealth than to acquire it. 

114. Written Exercises. 

1. Write five sentences containing common nouns. 
Model. — The merchants are all bus}^ 

2. Write five sentences containing collective nouns. 
Model. — The jury disagreed. 



58 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

3. Write five sentences containing abstract nouns. 
Model. — Youth is the springtime of hfe. 

4. Write five sentences using material nouns. 
Model. — The ware is made of granite. 

5. Write five sentences using participial nouns. 
Model. — Writing letters is useful work. 

115. A Pronoun is a word which represents persons 
or thino;s without namino- them. 

Examples. 
I, he, we, they, who, which, what. 

Remark 1. — Pronouns are used to prevent the disagree- 
able repetition of the same word. Thus: John went to 
town, and, as lie returned, lie was thrown from Ills horse. 
He is substituted for John, and liis^ for John's. 

Remakk 2. — The noun for which the pronoun stands 
is called its antecedent. Thus : in the sentence, John 
IniTt Ms hand, John is the antecedent of his. 

Eemark 3. — Pronouns have distinct forms to express 
person^ number^ gender and case. 

Remark 4. — The pronouns denoting the speaker are 
/, m?/, me, ^(;e, our^ ours^ us. 

(b.) The pronouns denoting the person or thing 
spoken to are thoii^ tliy^ thine^ thee^ you^ ye^ your^ yours. 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 59 

(e.) The pronouns denoting* the person or thhig 
SPOKEN OF are lie^ liis^ him^ sJie^ her, hers, it, its, they, 
their, theirs, them. 

ii6. Exercise. 

Select the pronouns from the foUoiving : 

1. The man whom I trusted, deceived me. 

2. If you live in the city, write your number and 
street. 

3. We consecrate our work to national independence. 

4. "Thus," said he, "we will build this ship I 
Lay square the blocks upon the slip, 

And follow well this plan of mine. 
Choose the timbers with greatest care ; 
Of all that is unsound beware ; 
For only what is sound and strong 
To this vessel shall belong." 

Dictation : 

5 "Sail on!" it says: "sail on, ye stately ships! 
And with your floating bridge the ocean span; 
Be mine to guard this light from all eclipse, 
Be 3^ours to bring man nearer unto man." 

117. The four kinds of pronouns are personal pro- 
nouns, relative pronouns, interrogative pronouns, and 
adjective pronouns. 

118. A Personal Pronoun is a word which shows by 
its form whether its antecedent is the speaker, the person 
addressed, or some x^erson or thing spoken of. 



GO COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

Examples. 
I, me, us, thou, 3^ou, he, she, it, they. 

119. Exercises. 

Select the personal iwonouns from the foil otving sentences i 

1. I lost my way as I returned. 

2. You spoke thus of 3^our friend. 

3. He told me that you were expecting them. 

4. We cling to what is ours. 

5. Thine enemies shall not triumph over thee. 

6. Thou hast deceived thy best friend. 

7. The moth scorched its wings. 

8. We should not think too highly of ourselves. 

9. It is not his, hers nor theirs; it belongs to us. 
10. They admired the book you showed them. 

120. A Relative Pronoun is a pronoun which con- 
nects the clause of which it forms a part to the word 
naming the same person or thing in another clause. 

Remark. — In interrogative sentences, the word to 
which the pronoun refers is called its subsequent. 
Thus : Who came this morning ? John. John is the 
subsequent of who. In other sentences, the word to 
which the pronoun refers is called its antecedent. 
Thus : The man lohom you saw yesterday^ is my 
friend. Man is the antecedent of whom. 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 61 



The Relative pronouns are ivlio^ ivJiose^ whom; ivJiich^ 
that, as, ichat. Who, luhose, ivhom and ichat are used in 
interrogative sentences. 

Examples. 

The man who came yesterday, is sick. 
I know the girl whose father died. 
The perso7i who^i you named, loas absent. 
The child which laas hurt, has recovered. 
This is the very book that I wanted. 
He has such friends as one should desire. 

Who is mse? Whose book is this? Which road shall 
I take? What shall I do? Who:m ivould you recom- 
mend? He asked me what I ivanted. He spoke as foU 
lotus : 

Note. — What and as refer to a subsequent. Thus: 
What I ivanted is a neiv hat. He spoke as follows : I 
am ready to go. Ever or soever are sometimes joined to 
ivho, ivhose, ivhom, ivhich and ivhat. 

121. Exercise. 

Select the relative or interrogative pronouns from the f oh 
loiving sentences : 

1. He was the first that discovered it. 

2. It is not grief that bids me moan. 

3. His praise is lost who waits till all commend. 



62 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

4. This is the very thing that I wanted. 

0. I did not understand what he said. 

6. Some men oppose whatever others propose. 

7. Be a man who minds his own business. 

8. Draw out of others what may make you wiser. 

9. I saw the horse which was maimed. 

10. Bright-eyed Fancy hov'ring o'er, 
Scatters from her silver urn, 
Thoughts that breathe and words that burn. 

121. An Interrogative Pronoun is a relative pro- 
noun used in asking a question. 

122. An Adjective Pronoun is a definitive adjective 
used without a noun. 

Examples. 

All is not gold that glitters. 

Many are called but few are chosen. 

123. Exercises. 

Select the Adjective j7?'onoit7is from the folloiuing 
sentences : 

1. One might lose himself in the woods. 

2. They fled, some one way; others, another. 

3. One sows ; another reaps. 

4. That is not what you said before. 



PRONOUNS. 



5. Character is what we are ; reputation is what 

others think we are. 

6. Dost thou feel another's woe? 

7. He remained a da}^ or two longer. 

8. Half a league onward rode the six hundred. 

9. Let each regard what concerns others. 
10. Gold and silver have I none. 

Remark 1. — Mine^ ours^ tliine^ yours^ his, hers, and 
theirs are forms of the personal pronoun used to express 

oionership. 

Remark 2. — The forms, myself, ourselves, thyself, 
yourself, or yourselves, himself, herself, itself, and them- 
selves are compounds of personal pronouns and the noun 
self or selves, 

124. Written Exercises. 

1. Write sentences using I, my, me, ive, our, us 
and tvho, and tell what words are their antecedents. 

Model. — George and I were about to visit our uncle 
who lives in the country. 

2. Write sentences using you, your, lohose and luhom. 

Model. — Boys, 3^ou should not tease any one against 
whom 3^ou may have a grudge, or whose temper is bad. 

3. Write sentences using he, his, him, she, heVy 
they, their, them, it, its. 



64 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

Model. — The girl told .her mother that he had 
deceived them. 

4. Select sentences containing pronouns and tell in 
what they agree with their antecedents. 

125. A Verb is a word which expresses the action or 
state of some person or thing. 

Examples. 
Is walks writes grows sings. 

126. Exercises. 

Select the verbs from the folio wing sentences: 

1. If you would write well, know first what you 
want to say. 

2. Go, ring the bells and fire the guns. 

3. Tell me again what Robert said. 
Dictation. 

4. Ah, how skillful grows the hand 

That obeyeth Love's command. 
It is the heart and not the brain 

That to the highest doth attain; 
And he who foUoweth Love's behest. 
Far excelleth all the rest. 

127. There are three kinds of verbs, vtz., Transitive, 
Intransitive, and Copulative. 

128. A Transitive Verb is a verb expressing an act 
which passes over from a doer to some other person 
or thing. 



VERBS. 65 



Kemark. • — The object of a verb is a noun or pronoun 
denoting — 

1. The direct or joassive object; as, John struck 

James. 

2. The indirect object; as, Henry gave me a hook, 

3. The object of effect ; as, He built a house. 

4. The object of kindred meaning ; as, He rayi a 

RACE. 

Examples. 
I see the bird. You lurote the letter. George 
struck the boy. She has sung her finest song. 

I2g. An Intransitive verb is a verb expressing 
merely the action or state of some person or thing. 

Examples. 
The horse walks. The boy sleeps. He sits. He lies. 
The tree grows. John studies. The girl writes. 

Kemark. — Some verbs are used in a causative sense, 
as. The hell rings=is rung ; John teaches Joseph= 
CAUSES Joseph TO learn; George felled a ?ree=cAusED 
the tree to fall. 

Caution. — Such verbs as sit and set ; lie and Iciy ; learn 
and teach ; rise and raise ; fall and fell are liable to be 
misused. 

130. A Copulative Verb is a verb which requires 

another word to complete its meaning. 
5 



66 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

Examples. 
The board feels smooth. 
The sailors fell sick. 
The boys look pale and tired. 
She dyed her hair black. 
They elected him chairman, 

131. Exercise. 

Select the verbs and tell their kind: 

1. The trees have lost their foliage. 

2. The farmer's horse ran away. 

3. We read Tennyson's poems. 

4. The avenues were lined with grenadiers. 

5. The streets were kept clear by cavalry. 

6. The peers were marshalled by heralds. 

7. The judges attended in their vestments. 

8. She seems quite bright and intelligent. 

9. They painted the house red. 
10. He was crowned king. 

Remark 1. — Such verbs as gi^oiv^ begin,, look^ noting 
tendency, effort or resemblance, require an adjective 
or verbal to complete their meaning ; as, They grew 
sick^ weary ^ tired ; The fields look green. He tried 
farming^ — to walk. 



VERBALS. 67 

Remark 2. — Whenever the predicate is expressed 
by a noun^ a iiroiioun^ an adjective^ or a verbal^ the 
verb is called the Copula ; as, A whale is a mammal ; 
It is she ; The ox is strong ; The bird is flying ; The 
boys are grown. The office of the copula is to 
assert. 

Remark 3. — In sentences in which the passive voice 
or the progressive or continuous forms of the verb 
are used, the verbal may be regarded as the predi- 
cate ; as, Trees are growing ; The letter is printed ; 
The boy has been studying. 

132. Verbals are parts of the verb expressing but 
not asserting the action or state of a person or thing. 

Examples. 

To study diligently is to tvork hard ; Stealing is taking 
another's property; Judges should be men of probity 
learned in the law. 

Remark 1. — Verbals are either infinitives or parti- 
ciples. 

Remark 2. —The infinitive is the simple form of the 
verb with to before it; as, to knoiv^ to love^ to sleepy to 
add. The infinitive is used without to when it denotes 
the final object ; as, I saw him fall ; He dares not go. 

Remark 3. — Participles are formed from verbs by 
suffixing ing, d, t, or ed ; or n or en to the simple 



68 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

form. Thus : from 'knoio is formed knoiving and known ; 
from love^ loving and loved ; from sleep ^ sleeping and 
slept ; from add, adding and added ; from {/i^e, giving 
and {//yeTi ; from /aZ?, falling and fallen. 

Remark 4. — The compound forms of verbals are 
combinations of the verbals of he or have with the verbals 
of other verbs ; as, being hnoivn^ having hnoimi^ having 
been knoimi^ to be knoiving^ to be known^ to have been 
knoivn^ to be about to know^ to be going to know. 

Verbals are used as (a) nouns, (b) as adjectives, and 
(c) as adverbs. 

a. Verbals as Nouns : 

To see is to believe ; Seeing is believing. 

Your walking is as fast as my running. 

There came a moaning on the wind. 

I heard the sighing of the wind. 

Hoeing potatoes is very hard work. 

It is an accomplishment to know how to write a 
good letter. 

b. Verbals as Adjectives: 
Time to come is called future. 
Come upon a laboring day. 

Muffled drums beating funeral marches. 

A piercing cry rang through the startled air. 



VERBALS. 



c. Verbals as Adverbs: 
He came riding backwards. 
The man went to see the circus. 
It was difficult to get enough bread to eat. 
These - shoes were made for selling. 
The man came armed for fighting. 

"We live on 
Loathing our life and dreading still to die." 

133. Written Exercises. 

1. Write five sentences using verbals as nouns. 
Model. — "To love makes not to love again." 

2. Write five sentences using verbals as adjectives. 
Model. — Doing disinterested good is not a trade. 

3. Write five sentences using verbals as adverbs. 
Model. — It is a task to learn to hear. 

4. Point out all the verbals in a given selection 
and tell how each is used. 

5. Write five sentences using pronouns as predicates. 
Model. — The girl you met was she. 

6. Write five sentences using adjectives as predi- 
cates. 

Model. — The boy is diligent. 

7. Write five sentences using verbals as predicates. 



70 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

Model. — The houses are built, 

8. Write live sentences using verbals as subjects. 

Model. — Learning how to write letters is a profit- 
able exercise. 

134. An Adjective is a word joined to a noun to 
point out or describe some person or thing. 

Examples. 

Ripe apples ; That book ; Bad boys ; Ten men ; Riin- 
ning brooks ; Canadian waters. 

135. Exercise. 

Select the adjectives from the folloioing sentences: 

1. Moderate rate prevails in narrative, descriptive or 
didactic reading. 

2. The mingled hum of the busy town rose faint. 

3. Do not seek frivolous or illusive pleasures. 

4. Sweet Auburn! loveliest village of the plain! 

Dictation : 

5. Think every morning when the sun peeps through 

The dim, leaf -latticed windows of the grove, 
How jubilant the happy birds renew 

Their old, melodious madrigals of love! 
And when you think of this, remember too 

'Tis always morning somewhere, and above 
The awakening continents, from shore to shore, 

Somewhere the birds are singing evermore. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 71 

136. There are two kinds of adjectives: 
I. Definitive Adjectives, and — 

II. Descriptive Adjectives. 

137. A Definitive Adjective is a word joined to a 
noun to point out some person or thing. 

138. Definitive adjectives include — 

1. The Definite Article the and the Indefinite 

Article a or an. 

2. The Demonstratives tliis^ these, that, those; 

former and latter; both, same, yon and yonder. 

3. The Distributives each, every, either and neither. 

4. The Indefinites all, any, another, certain^ divers, 

enough, few, little, many, much, no, none, one, 
other, oicn, several, some, sundry. 

5. Cardinal Numbers as one, two, three. 

6. Ordinal Numbers as first, second, third, last. 

7. Multiplicative Numerals as two-fold, three- 

fold, triple, quadruple, quintuple. 

139. A Descriptive Adjective is one that denotes 
some quality of the person or thing named. 

Examples. — Good men, had boys, siveet cider, sour 
apples, pretty goods, tall trees, running brooks, crying 
children, learned men, beloved friends, Mexican veterans. 



72 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

140. Descriptive adjectives, derived from proper 
names are called Proper Adjectives and always begin 
with capitals ; as, Spanish America, American people, 
English goods, Baconian philosophy. 

141. Exercise. 

Select the adjectives and tell their kind: 
Dictation: 

1. Year after year beheld the silent toil 

That spread his lustrous coil ; 
Still, as the spiral grew. 

He left the past year's dwelling for the new. 
Stole with soft step its shining archway through, 

Built up its idle door. 
Stretched in his last found home, and 

Knew the old no more. 

142. Written Exercises. 

1. Write five sentences using descriptive adjectives. 

Model. — That large yellow book is an interesting new 
novel. ^ 

2. Write five sentences using definitive adjectives. 

Model. — The first two pupils are the boys who get 
every lessson perfectly. 

3. Write five sentences using both descriptive and 
definitive adjectives. 

Model. — That old tree bore fifty russet apples. 

4. Select the adjectives from a given extract and tell 
their kind. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 73 

143. An Adverb is a word joined to a verb to show the 
time^ place or manner of an action or state, or to an 
adjective or adverb to show the degree of quality or 
manner. 

Examples. 

There he can soon sleep soundly. 

The boy is noio going home slowly. 

He is too sick to walk very rapidly. 

144. Exercises. 

Select the adverbs in the following sentences: 

1. Why does this boy sit here so idle to-day? 

2. Even a very young child should know better. 

3. Shut the door gently; step softly; speak low. 

4. In the long way I must tread alone, 

He'll guide my steps aright. 

Dictation : 

Never here, forever there, 

Where all parting, pain and care, 

And death and time shall disappear, — 
Forever there, but never here I 

The horologe of Eternity 
Sayeth this incessantly, — 
' ' Forever — never ! 
Never — forever ! ' * 

145. Written Exercises. 

1. Write five sentences using adverbs of place, time 
or manner. 

Model. — The planets generally move eastward. 



74 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

2. Write five sentences using adverbs to modify ad- 
jectives. 

Model. — This is a very cold da}^ 

3. Write five sentences using adverbs to modify other 
adverbs. 

Model. — He is very well qualified to teach history 
quite successfully. 

146. A Preposition is a word which shows the rela- 
tion of its object to some action or state, or to some 
other person or thing. 

Examples. 

He is a man of affairs ; He sleeps in a room on the 
third floor ; The boy cut his hand ivitli a scythe ; She 
went to the city imth her mother; He fell dead at the 
feet of the white woman hy a blow from a tomahawk. 



Remabk 1.— 


-The 


following words 


lare 


simple preposi- 


tions : 










At 




far 




since 


after 




from 




through 


against 




in 




till 


but 




of 




to 


by 




off 




under 


down 




over 




up 


ere 




on 




with 


except 




save 







PARTS OP SPEECH. 75 

Remark 2. — The words nigh, near, next and like 
are sometimes used as prepositions. 

Re^iark 3. — A preposition with what depends upon 
it constitutes a prepositional phrase. 

Remark 4. — Phrases are used as adjectives or ad- 
verbs to express definite relations. 

147. Exercises. 

Select the prepositions from the folloioing sentences: 

1. He went into the barn and slept on the straw. 

2. The anchor clung to the rock with tenacity. 
Dictation : 

3. A hurry of hoofs in a village street, 

A shape in the moonlight, a bulk in the dark, 
And beneath, from the pebbles, in passing, a spark 

Struck out by a steed flying fearless and fleet: 
That was all! And yet, through the gloom and 
the light, 

The fate of a nation was riding that night; 
And the spark struck out by that steed, in his flight, 

Kindled the land into flame with its heat. 

148. Written Exercises. 

1. Write five sentences using phrases to modify nouns. 
Model.— Boys loith good habits are in constant demand, 

2. Write five sentences using phrases to modify verbs. 
Model. — He was in a great hurry. 

3. Write five sentences using prepositions as adverbs. 
Model. — The man said: Come in. 



76 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

4. Write five sentences using prepositions as separable 

particles. 
Model. — The conditions have not been complied loith. 

5. Select five sentences involving prepositions and point 
out their objects. 

6. Select fiYQ sentences with prepositions used as 
adverbs. 

149. A Conjunction is a word used to connect words, 
phrases or clauses having a common relation to some other 
word. 

Examples. 

1. John and James came to St. Louis. 

2. Mary first went to New York and then to Boston. 

3. He went into the house and on top of the house. 

4. Grant was a great general hut a kind-hearted man. 

5. Life is short and art is long. 

6. He is short hut stout. / 

7. The boy is either stupid or he is lazy. 

8. I heard that you w^ere there. 

9. I do not know whether he will come. 
10. He will come, if it does not rain. 

150. Exercise. 

Select the conjunctions from these sentences: 
1. Hemy and James wrote a letter, but forgot to 
mail it. 



INTERJECTIONS. 77 



2. It is a name: therefore it is a noun. 

3. Life is short and art is long. 

4. Let him read so that he can be heard. 

Dictation : 

0. Am I a king, that I should call my own 

This splendid ebon throne? 
Or by what reason, or what right divine 

Can I proclaim it mine ? 
Only, perhaps, by right divine of song 

It may to me belong: 
Only because the spreading chestnut-tree 

Of old by me was sung. 

151. Written Exercises. 

1. Write five sentences using and, hut^ or or. 
Model. — Jack and Jill went up the hill. 

2. Write five sentences using that and ivlietlier. 
Model. — You know whether you said so. 

3. Write five sentences using that or lest. 
Model. — Read so that you may be heard. 

152. An Interjection is a word used to express 
strong feeUng. 

Examples. 
Adieu ! farewell ! ah ! alas ! Oh ! fie ! 
Good bye! Whoa! Gee! Haw! 
Scat! Hello! Hurrah! 
Pshaw ! Fudge ! Pooh ! 



78 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

153. Exercise. 

• Select the interjections : 

1. Farewell ! liappy fields, where joy forever dwells. 

2. Beware! beware! Trust her not! 

3. "Farewell!" said he, ''Minnehaha! 

Farewell, O my Laughing Water! 
All my heart is buried with you! 

All my thoughts go onward with you!" 

Dictation : 

4. All is of God! If he but wave his hand, 

The mists collect, the rain falls thick and loud. 
Till, with a smile of light on sea and land, 
Lo! he looks back from the departing cloud. 

0. He did not stop to parley or dissemble, 

But smote the Warden hoar: 
Ah! what a blow! that made all England tremble 
And groan from shore to shore. 

154. Exei*cise. 

Classify the words in the folloimng sentences: 

1. All men think all men mortal but themselves. 

2. Be not too earnest, violent or loud in your con- 
versation. 

8. Weigh your operations well, that they may be signif- 
icant, pertinent and inoffensive. 

4. At the last faint gash he makes, his knife, his 
faithful knife, drops from his little nerveless hand. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 79 



5. A wise and good man, whether rich or 2)oor, is 
a great blessing to any community. 

6. Within a short time, we have witnessed a curious 
and beautiful spectacle. 

7. An old man, not in office and never to be in office ; 
not rich but plain and simple in dress and appearance, 
has been passing through the every day routes of travel 
in our country. 

8. Every child in the community has a right to 
demand from society an education suitable to the sphere 
of life he is to fill. 

9. Gen. Braddock exposed himself fearlessly. He 
had four horses killed under him, and was on the fifth 
when he was mortally wounded. 

155. Exercise. 
Take some selection in the Fourth Reader and 
select each Part of Speech, line by line, sentence 
by sentence, and paragraph by paragraph. 

156. Written Exercise. 

1. Write five sentences using interjections. 

Model. — Farewell! happy fields where joy forever 
dwells. 

2. Select sentences containing interjections. 

3. Classify all the words in a given extract. 



80 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

THE GRAMMATICAL PROPERTIES AND 
FORMS OF WORDS. 

157. A Grammatical Property is some peculiar 
quality which the mind imposes upon a word. 

In the sentence, He writes better letters than his 
friend, the words have the grammatical properties of 
gender, number, person, case, voice, mode, tense 
and comparison. 

158. Inflection is a change of form given to words 
to make them express grammatical properties. 

159. Inflection includes — 

1. The Declension of nouns and pronouns, 

2. The Comparison of adjectives and adverbs, and 

3. The Conjugation of verbs. 

GENDER. 

160. Gender is a distinction of nouns and pronouns 
with regard to sex. 

Persons and animals alone have sex, but sex may be 
imputed to things ; as, The moon rises in all her siolendor. 

Things not personified are without sex. Thus : A man 
is a male, a woman is a female, a child or parent may be ; 
of EITHER SEX, whilc a tree is without sex. 



THE MASCULINE GENDER. 81 

The GENDER of nouns and pronouns corres- 
ponds to these distinctions of SEX. 

i6i. There are four genders: 

1. The masculine gender, 

2. The feminine gender, 

3. The neuter gender, and — 

4. The common gender. 

THE MASCULINE GENDER. 

162. The names of males are of the Masculine 
Gender. 

Examples. 
Prince, brother, man, king, hero. 

163. A pronoun is of the mascuhne gender when 
its antecedent denotes a male; as, John gave his sister 
a hook. 

The masculine gender is imputed to objects. 

1. When they are conspicuous for imparting or 

communicating; as, the Sun^ God^ Ocean^ 
^ther. 

2. When they are naturally active, strong and effi- 

cacious; as. Time, Death, Sleep, Life, 

164. Exercises. 

Give the gender of the nouns : 

1. Me Time hath bent, that sorry Artist, he 

That surely makes whate'er he handles, worse. 



82 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

2. Thames, with pride, surveys his rising towers. 
Dictation : 

3. Good-by to Flattery's fawning face ; 
To Grandeur, witli his wise grimace ; 
To upstart Wealtli's averted eye; 

To supple Office, low and high. 

4. Sleep and his brother Death. 

165. Written Exercises. 

1. Write five sentences using nouns and pronouns of 
the masculine gender. 

2. Select five sentences containing nouns and pro- 
nouns of the masculine gender. 

THE FEMININE GENDER. 

166. The names of females are of the Feminine 
Gender. 

Examples. 
Princess, sister, wohian, queen, heroine. 

167. A pronoun is of the feminine gender when its 
antecedent denotes a female ; as. My sister lost the 
hook I gave her. 

The feminine gender is imputed to objects, 

1. When they are conspicuous for receiving^ contain- 
ing^ or ijroducing ; as, the Moon^ the Earthy 
Ships ^ and other marine vessels, cities^ towns ^ 
states and countries. 



THE FEMININE GENDER. 83 

2. When they are naturally i^assive^ amiable or 

beautiful ; as, Virtue^ Faith^ Hope^ Charity^ 
Temperance. 

3. When they are passions noted for excesses; as. 

Here stood Ill-nature, like an ancient maid, 

Her wrinkled form in black and white arrayed. 

There Affectation with a sickly mein, 

Shows in her cheek the roses of eighteen. 

i68. Exercises. 

Tell the gender of all the nouns: 

1. Their parent country in her bosom holds 
Their wearied bodies. 

2. When Music, heavenly Maid, was young, 
While yet in early Greece she sung. 

169. Written Exercises. 

1. Write five sentences using nouns and pronouns of 
the feminine gender. 

2. Select five sentences containing nouns and pro- 
nouns of the feminine gender. 

170. The names of objects without sex are of the 
Neuter Gender. 

Examples. 
Tree, knife, book, pencil, desk. 

171. A pronoun is of the neuter gender when its 
antecedent is the name of a thing not personified ; as, 
/ gave Jane a book and she tore it. 



84 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAB. 

172. Names which represent either male or female 
beings, or both, are of the Common Gender. 

Examples. 
Friend child parents relatives author 

173. A pronoun is of the common gender when its 
antecedent represents either a male or a female, or both ; 
as, My COUSIN cut his (her) finger \ Children w^ho obey 
THEIR parents^ prosper, 

174. Written Exercises. 

1. Write five sentences using nouns or pronouns of 
the neuter gender. 

2, Write five sentences using nouns or pronouns of 
the common gender. 

175. Exercise. 

Select the nouns and pronouns from the following 
extracts and tell their gender: 

1. Mortals, that would follow me, 

Love virtue ; she alone is free : 
She can teach you how to climb 

Higher than the sphery chime; 
Or, if virtue feeble were, 

Heaven itself would stoop to her. 

2. "Do thou thy work; it shall succeed 

In thine or in another's day; 
And if denied the victor's meed, 

Thou shalt not miss the toiler's pay." 



FORMS WHICH DISTINGUISH SEX. 



85 



Dictation: 



Madness, with his frightful scream, 

Vengeance leaning on his lance. 
Avarice, with his blade and beam, 

Hatred blasting with a glance, 
Remorse that weeps, and Eage that roars. 

And Jealousy that dotes but dooms and mur- 
ders, yet adores. 
Mirth, his face with sunbeams lit, 

Waking Laughter's merry swell, 
Arm in arm with fresh-eyed Wit 

That waves his tingling lash, while Folly shakes 
his bell. 



FORMS WHICH DISTINGUISH SEX. 
176. One ivord denotes a male and the other the 
corresponding female. 



Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


boy 


girl 


he 


she 


brother 


sister 


husband 


wife 


bull 


cow 


king 


queen 


cock 


hen 


man 


woman 


drake 


duck 


monk 


nun 


father 


mother 


nephew 


niece 


gander 


goose 


son 


daughter 


gentleman 


lady 


uncle 


aunt 



177. Gender is denoted by prefixing a word 
indicating sex: 

He-wolf, she-wolf, man-servant, maid-servant. 

178. Gender is denoted by suffixing a syllable 
indicating sex, viz.: 

a. The syllable ess distinguishes the female. 



86 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 



Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


abbot 


abbess 


master 


mistress 


actor 


actress 


negro 


negress 


baron 


baroness 


patron 


patroness 


duke 


duchess 


peer 


peeress 


emperor 


empress 


poet 


poetess 


giant 


giantess 


priest 


priestess 


god 


goddess 


prince 


princess 


heir 


heiress 


prophet 


prophetess 


host 


hostess 


shepherd 


shepherdess 


instructor 


instructress 


songster 


songstress 


lad 


lass 


tiger 


tigress 


lion 


lioness 


traitor 


traitoress 



b. The syllable ix gives a legal title to a female. 



Masculine. Feminine. 



Masculine. Feminine. 



administrator administratrix heritor heritrix 

director directrix 

executor executrix testator testatrix 

c. The terminations ine^ en, ina, distinguish females; 
as, heroine, Josephine, vixen, Czarina, WilheU 
mina. 

179. Written Exercises. 
1. Write five sentences using words which show a 
distinction of sex. 

Model. — The countess married an American poet. 



THE SINGULAR AND PLURAL NUMBER. 87 



2. Write two sentences using prefixed distinguishing 
words. 

Model.— The tassel is the male-flower of Indian corn. 

3. Write five sentences using words in which termin- 
ations distinguish sex. 

Model, — This author makes his heroines silly. 

NUMBER. 

i8o. Number is a property of words which shows 

whether they refer to one person or thing, or to more 

than one. 

Examples. 

One object. More than one object. 

This boy runs. These boys run. 

Each drove is laro^e. All the droves are laro;e. 

That man sings. Those men sing. 

i8i. There are two numbers: * 

I. The Singular Number, and — 
II. The Plural Number. 

182. A word is of the singular number when it 
refers to one object only. 

Examples. 
Man, boy, lady, tree, book, 5, this. 
The following kinds of objects are regarded as 
single things : 

1. All material substances ; as, gold^ dust, molasses ^ 
silver. 



S8 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

2. The names of the arts and sciences; as, music^ 

painting, mathematics, optics. 

3. Pure or abstract numbers ; as, Thirty is a num- 

her; Five times Jive is tii^enty-jive. 

4. The names of quahties or actions ; as, brightness, 

truth, loriting, 

o. All proper names; as, Thomas Jefferson, William 
Henry Harrison. 

183. A word is of the plural number when it refers 
to more than one person or thing. 

Examples. 

Men, boys, ladies, trees, books, 5's, these. 

FORMATION OF THE PLURAL NUMBER. 

184. The phiral number of nouns is formed by suf- 
fixing s, es, ies, or 's. 

Examples. 
Trees, boxes, ladies, t's, x's. 

Special Rules for pluralizing nouns. 

185. Suffix the syllable es to all nouns ending in 
the sounds of sh, ch, j (ge, dge), s (ss, ce, se, x), 
and z (zz). 

Examples. 
Bushes churches judges cages kisses 
gases faces senses boxes buzzes. 



FORMATION OF THE PLURAL NUMBER. 89 

1 86. Suffix es to all nouns in common use ending 
in o or u. 

Examples. 
Potatoes, calicoes, tomatoes, gnues. 

187. Drop y and suff.x ies to all nouns ending in 
y preceded by a consonant. 

Examples. 
Lady, ladies; geography, geographies. 

Ji@" Do not apply this rule to nouns ending in y 
preceded by a vowel ; as, money ^ moneys ; attorney^ 
attorneys. 

188. Suffix 's to letters, marks, signs or figures. 

i8g. Other nouns are generally pluralized b}" suffix- 
ing s. 

Examples. 
Boys, scholars, works, trees, solos. 

I@°^ The third person singular of the present in- 
definite tense of verbs is formed in the same man- 
ner as the plural of nouns; as, A judge judges; 
Judges judge. 

IRREGULAR PLURALS. 

190. The plural of ox is oxen;—oi child is children; 
of brother is brethren or brothers. 



90 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 



1 91. The vowel is 


changed for the plural of the fol- 


lowing words: 




S, Foot goose 


man mouse tooth woman 


P. Feet geese 


men mice teeth women 



192. Sixteen nouns drop f, fe or ff and suffix ves 
in the plural: 

S. Beef calf elf half knife life 

P. Beeves calves elves halves knives lives 

S. loaf leaf self shelf sheaf 

P. loaves leaves selves shelves sheaves 

S. staff thief wife wolf wharf 

P. staves thieves wives wolves wharves 

193. Foreign words have irregular plurals: 

>S'. Axis datum beau genus focus 

P. Axes data beaux genera foci 

J|®"For other forms, consult the dictionary. 

194. Compound nouns have their emphatic part plural- 



ized : 








S. 


Brother-in-law 


court-martial 


cupful 


P. 


Brothers-in-law 


courts-martial 


cupfuls 



195. Written Exercises. 

1. Write five sentences using nouns pluralized by 
suffixing es. 

Model. — The benches j^ut into churches are called pews. 



NOMINATIVE, OBJECTIVE AND POSSESSIVE CASE. 91 

2. Write five sentences using nouns pluralized by 
suffixing ies. 

Model. — The ponies are quite tame. 

3. Write five sentences usi^g the jDlurahzecI forms of 
letters^ marks ^ signs or figures. 

Model. — Dot your fs and cross your fs, 

4. Write five sentences using nouns whose phirals are 
irregularly formed. 

Model. — The calves are eating the leaves off the dahlias. 

0. Write five sentences using the plural form of com- 
pound nouns. 

Model. — The Knights-Templar are holding their con- 
clave. 

6. Point out all the plural inflections in a given 
selection. 

CASE. 

196. Case is the property of nouns or pronouns 
which shows their relation to other words. 

Examples. 
He told her about Jiis mother's family. 
Our neighbor's bees have left their hives. 

197. The cases have three names: the nominative, 
the objective, and the possessive. 



92 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

198. The Nominative case is the form a noun or 
a pronoun has when it is used as the subject or the 
predicate of a sentence. 

Examples. 
I am lie; John is a man; Mary is my niece, 

199. The Objective case is the form a noun or a 
pronoun has when it is used as the object of a verb 
or of a preposition. 

Examples. 
I gave the book to him ; he sold it to her. 

200. The Possessive case is the form a noun or a 
pronoun has when it is used to express ownership, 
origin, or fitness. 

Examples. 

My hat ; Solomon's Temple ; Men's shoes. 

I®" The possessive case is confined to names of jper- 
sons^ animals^ and to things to which sex is imputed. 

Ji®" Do not say, The table's legs^ but the legs of the 
table. 

Rule for forming the possessive case. 

201. Suffix 's to all common nouns not ending in the 
sound of s, and to proper nouns not ending in ees, es 
or urs. In other cases suppress the s and retain the 
apostrophe ('). 



COMPOUND NOUNS. 93 

Examples. 
Men's hats; boys' clothing; ladies' gloves; the sun's 
rays; Burns's poems; for conscience' sake; Archimedes' 
screw; Moses' anger. 

202. Compound Nouns and the names of officers 
and firms have the sign of possession suffixed to the 
last word. 

Examples. 
The Bishop of Durham's residence; His son-in-law's 
estate; Brown & Robinson's store. 

203. Written Exercises. 

1. Write five sentences using 's to express owner- 
ship. 

Model. — This is Albert's slate. 

2. Write five sentences using 's to express origin. 
Model.- — He is his father's son. 

3. Write five sentences using 's to exj^ress fitness. 
Model. — Vassar is a woman's college. 

4. Write five sentences using compound nouns in 
the possessive case. 

Model. — My mother-in-laiv' s house is elegant, 

5. Write five sentences using nouns in which the s 
is suppressed and the apostrophe is retained. 

6. Pick out all the possessive forms in a given se- 
lection. 



94 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

PERSON. 

Person is that grammatical property which shows 
whether a word refers to a i^erson as speaking^ to the 
person or thing spoken to, or to some person or thing 
sjjoken of, 

204. There are three persons, the First Person, the 
Second Person, and the Third Person. 

205. The First Person denotes a person as speaking; 
the Second Person denotes the person or thing spoken 
to ; and the Third Person denotes the person or thing 
spoken of. 

206. Personal Pronouns show this property and 
impose it upon verbs. 

207. Pronouns are inflected in three cases and have 
forms to express number, gender and person. 

208. Declension is the systematic arranging of all 
the forms of a noun or pronoun to show its grammatical 
properties. 

209. DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS. 
First Person. 

Nominative, Possessive, Objective. 

Singular: I, my or mine, me. 

Plural: we, our or ours, us. 



DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS. 95 



Feminine. 


Neuter, 


she, 


it. 


her or hers, 


its. 


her, 


it. 



Second Person. 
Nominative. Possessive, Objective. 

Singular: (only): thou, thy o?^ thine, thee. 

Sing, and Plural: you oi' ye, your or yours, you. 

Remark. — The pronouns of the first and the second 
persons have no forms to show gender. 

Third Person. 

Singular. 
MasculiJie. 
Nominative: he, 

Possessive: his, 

Objective : him. 

Remark 1. — iJe, she^ it^ are the only forms in English 
which express gender. 

Remark 2. — The demonstratives this and that are in- 
flected to express number; as, Singular^ this or that, 
plural^ these or those. 

Reiviark 3. — The relative and interrogative pronoun 
ivho is inflected to express case ; as. Nominative^ who, 
possessive whose, objective whom. 

Remark 4. — Whose is used for the possessive of which. 
Whereof^ of which ^ or of ivhom is often used for whose. 

Remark 5. — One, other and another are inflected like 
nouns ; as, One's discretion should be one's tutor; Men 
should regard one another's interest. 



96 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

Remark 6. — Mine^ thine^ oiirs^ yours^ Jiis^ Jiers^ its^ 
theirs are used without a noun as predicates to denote 
ownership ; as, That hook is mine; Gay hope is theirs. 

Kemark 7. — The forms myself^ ourselves^ thyself^ your- 
self^ yourselves^ himself^ herself^ itself^ themselves^ are 
compounds of personal p)ronouns and the noun self. They 
are nouns used in the nominative and objective cases. 

Kemark 8. — The relative pronoun who has the same 
form for both numbers, viz: Singular and Plural: 
Nominative who, p^osssesive whose, objective whom. 

210. Exercises. 

Select the pronouns from the folloioing sentences and 
tell their grammatical pjroperties : 

1. I lost my way as I returned. 

2. You yourself spoke of your friend. 

3. He told me that you were expecting them. 

4. That slate is not yours. 

5. Whose slate are you using? 

6. We should not speak too highly of ourselves. 

7. Thine enemies shall not triumph over thee. 

8. Cromwell, love thyself last. 

9. It is not his, hers, or theirs ; it is ours. 
10. They admired the book you showed them. 



DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS. 97 



211. Written Exercises. 

1. Write five sentences using personal pronouns in 
the nominative case. ' 

Model. — John and I remained as long as we could. 

2. Write five sentences using personal pronouns in 
the possessive case. 

Model. — 3Iy brother met your friend. 

3. Write five sentences using personal pronouns in 
the objective case. 

Model. — Give me the book; Let us wait. 

4. Write five sentences using personal pronouns of 
the masculine gender. 

Model. — He cut liis finger. 

0. Write five sentences usmg pronouns of the femi- 
nine gender. 

Model. — She waved her hand. 

6. Write five sentences using the relative pronoun 
loho^ whose ^ ivhoin. 

Model. — IVJio steals mj^ purse, steals trash. 

7. Write five sentences using of tchich, of whom, or 
whereof instead of tuhose. 

Model. — The fruit of ichich was good. 

8. Write five sentences using the possessive of one, 
other or another. 

Model. — Bear one another's burden. 

7 • 



98 COMPLETE GOUBSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAB. 

9, Point out all the inflected forms of nouns and 
pronouns in a given selection. 

TWO FORMS OF THE TRANSITIVE VERB. 

212. The form of a transitive verb showing whether 
the subject denotes the doer or the object of the action 
expressed by it, is called Voice. 

213. Transitive verbs have two voices, the active 
voice and the passive voice. 

Examples. 

The doer of the action. The object of the action, 

A man struck a boy. A boy was struck by a man. 

The boy threw a stone. A stone was thrown by a boy. 

John wrote a letter. A letter was written. 

He sang a song. A song was sung. 

214. Voice is that property of a verb which shows 
the relation between a verb and its subject. 

Kemark. 1. — The object of a transitive verb may be 
any one of three things : 

1. The object affected by the act; as, He shot a 
deer, 

2. The object known by the act ; as. He saw a 
deer, 

3. The object caused by the act; as. He struck a 
hloiv. 



TEE TRANSITIVE VERB, 99 

Kemark 2.— The object of kindred meaning is simply 
a word denoting what is caused by an action; as, He ran 
a race; They sang a hymn. 

Remark 3. — The final object is a verbal expressing an 
act of or on its subject; as, I saw him fall; I have 
bread to eat; The thief was seen lurking around; He 
was seen to fall, 

215. The Active Voice shows b}^ its form that the 
subject denotes the doer of the action. 

Examples. 
Men build ships ; Birds build nests ; Scholars write 
books ; Soldiers fight battles ; Hunters kill game ; Sing- 
ers sing songs. 

Remark 1. — J, ice^ tJioii^ you, (ye), he^ she, it, they 
and tvho are forms of the pronouns used as subjects 
or as predicates 07ily, 

Remark 2. — 3fe, ?(s, thee, him, them and tvhom are 
forms of the pronouns used as the objects of transitive 
verbs and of prepositions only; as, The bo}- got it from 
him and gave it to them; She- told its that; The boy 
ivho is running, struck him whom you see ^^onder. 

Remark 3. — The pronouns it, you, ichich, that and ichat 
are both subjective and objective. Her is both possessive 
and objective; as. Her mother told her the story. 

Remark 4. — Nouns have no forms to distinguish subjec- 
tive and objective. 



100 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

2i6. The Passive Voice shows by its form that the 
subject is the receiver of the action. 

Examples. 

Ships are built by men ; Nests are built by birds ; 
Books are written by scholars ; Battles are fought by 
soldiers ; Game is killed by hunters ; Songs are sung by 
singers. 

Remark 1.— The passive voice is used when it is not 
desirable to name the doer of the act. Thus, the expres- 
sion they say or loe say may be changed into the more 
elegant form it is said ; and such an expression as of ivliidi 
we think something may be changed to of tvhich something 
is thought. 

Remark 2. — When the iKissive form of a verb is used, 
the name of the doer is usually suppressed; as, The 
good-by's icere said; The guests had all beeii invited; 
The officers ivere elected. 

Remark 3. — Intransitive verbs are sometimes used in 
the passive form to express a permanent condition; as, 
He IS fallen; The melancholy days are come. 

217. Exercises. 

Change the voice of the verbs in the folloiuing sentences : 

1. A polite person enters a room quietly. 

2. A rope was soon brought. 

3. The eagle's nest was seen far below. 



THE TRANSITIVE VERB. 101 



4. Self-conceited speech pains our bearers. 

5. Noisy conversation mars every one's comfort. 

6. The heavens drop fatness from the sea. 

7. The sea spins our thread and weaves our cloth. 

8. CiAility and politeness make us respected. 

9. He was drawn up over the cliff. 
10. A rope was tied to a brave j^outb. 

2i8. Written Exercises. 

1. Write five sentences using the verbs break ^ drcnc^ 
freeze^ lay^ and set in the active voice. 

Model. — ''Break not 3^our sleep for that." 

2". Change the sentences thus written by putting the 
verbs into the passive voice. 

Model.— Your sleep should not be broken for that. 

3. Write five sentences using speak^ steals take, tear, 
and throiv in the ^lassive voice. 

Model. — A word only was spoken and the servant was 
healed. 

4. Change these sentences by putting the verbs into 
the active voice. 

Model. — ''Speak the word onl}^, and my servant shall 
be healed." 

. o. Write fi.ve sentences using verbs in the active voice; 
and change these into the passive form. 



102 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

Model. — ''He that doth the ravens feed. 

Yea, providently caters for the sparrow, 
Be comfort to my age ! ' ' 

Changed, — The ravens are fed and food is pro\ided for 
the sparrows by Him who is the comfort of my age. 

6. Select sentences and change the verbs from active 
to passive, 

7. Write sentences using the objective cases of pro- 
nouns, and change them so as to use the nominative 
cases. 

Model. — "To him who in the love of nature holds 
communion with her visible forms, she speaks a various 
language." 

Changed. — A various language is spoken by nature 
to every one by whom communion is held with her 
visible forms through love for her. 

MODE. 

219. Mode is a property of the verb indicating how 
an action or state is regarded (thougJit), 

220. An act or state may be thought in four ways, 
viz: 

1. As something real (the Indicative Mode), 

2. As something potential (the Potential Mode), 

3. As expressing the condition or contingency of 

another act or state {the Subjunctive Mode), or, 



MODES. 103 



4. As expressing command, direction, or entreaty 

(Jhe Imjyerative Mode). 

Remark. — Verbals (infinitives and participles) express, 
but do not assert action or state. They are classed 
with the modes, but as they have peculiar uses, it is 
better to treat them separately. 

221. The Indicative Mode states or indicates action 
or state as a reality. 

Examples. 

I am here ; I shall he in town to-morrow ; I saw him 
and told about it. 

222. The Potential Mode states or expresses the 
power ^ possibility^ liberty or necessity of an action or 
state. 

Examples. 

It may rain to-morrow; An ape can climb a tree ; 
The boy could not carry the bundle ; He might have 
knoicn that the gun was loaded. 

223. The Subjunctive Mode expresses the condition 
or contingency of some other act or state. 

Examples. 

I shall go to the meeting, if I be in town ; If it should 
rain^ he will not go ; If I ivere you, I should wait till 
he comes. 



104 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

Remark. — The Subjunctive Mode will be more fully con- 
sidered when conditional, concessive and final clauses are 
treated. See Part III. page L59. 

224. The Imperative Mode expresses will or desire. 

Examples. 
Go and tell him that I am here ; Keep your powder 
dry ; Woodman, spare that tree ; Thy sins he forgiven 
thee ; Thy kingdom come; God bless our home ; Let us 
sing ; Heaven bless you all ; God save the queen ; Arise, 
TAKE UP thy bed and avalk ; My soul turn from them — 
TURN we to survey. Let us pray ; Let that plebeian 

TALK. 

225. Exercise. 

Tell what mode each of the following verbs has: 

1. The mocking-bird flies round his mate with his tail 

widely expanded. 

2. His beautiful wings are gently raised, he bows to 

his love, opens his bill and pours forth his 
melody. 

3. He that studies English literature without the lights 

of classical learning loses half the charm of its 
sentiment and st3ie. 

4. Fall he that must beneath his rival's arms, 
And live the rest secure of future harms, 

5. Were half the power that fills the world with 

terror, 



MODES. 105 



Were half the wealth bestowed on camps and courts 
Given to redeem the human mind from error, 
There were no need of arsenals and forts. 

Dictation : 

6. For me, when I forget the darling theme, 
Whether the blossom blows, the Summer ray 
Russets the plain, inspiring Autumn gleams. 
Or Winter rises in the blackening East, 

Be my tongue mute, my fancy paint no more, 
And dead to joy, forget my heart to beat. 

7. There is probably no bird in the world that pos- 

sesses all the musical qualifications of this king 
of song. 

8. If it were done, when it is done, it were well 

that it were done quickly. 

9. Speak, speak, thou fearful guest, 
Who, with thy hollow breast 
Still in rude armor drest, 

Comest to daunt me. 

226. Written Exercises. 

1. Write five sentences indicating action or state as 
a reality. 

Model. — The sun shines. 

2. Write five sentences expressing action or state as 
a potentiality. • 

Model. — The sun ma}" shine. 

3. Write five sentences expressing action or state as 
conditioning some other action or state. 



106 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

Model. — If the sun shine ^ the snow will melt. 

4. Write five sentences expressing an action or state 
as willed or desired. 

Model. — Give us our daily bread. 

5o Select the verbs from a given selection and tell 
what mode and voice they have. 

Remakk. — Whatever is possible^ prohahle or contingent^ 
is potential; but what is obligatory^ inevitable, or com- 
pitlsory, is necessary. When a verb expresses action, 
or state, thought as potential or necessary, it is in the 
potential mode. 

The Subjunctive Mode expresses some supposed action 
or state. 

Remark 1. — Whenever the conditioning clause expresses 
what is doubtful or contingent, the verb has the con- 
ditional form which uses the present infinitive without 
to in the present tense, the plural form of the past 
tense in the past tense, and shall in the third person 
or should in all persons and numbers of the future 
tense; as. If /^e should go, I shall go tvith him; If I 
be elected, I shcdl do so and so; If he were here, you 
would do otherwise. 

Eemark 2.- — The present tense expresses a condition 
which may be realized ; as. If he be careful, he will 
succeed ; Though you be rich, yow will have needs. 



THE SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 107 

Remark 3. — The past tense expresses a mere wish, or 
a supposition which cannot be reahzed ; as, If I w^ere 
you, I should improve my time; Oh! that /were young! 

Remark 4. — The past perfect tense expresses a sup- 
position which was not reahzed ; as, Had I known it 
sooner, I had not gone ; Had he been careful, it w^ould 
not HAVE happened. 

Remark 5. — The auxiharies might and could imply a 
condition. Thus : He could go (if he would) ; He could 
have gone (if he had wished to do so) ; He might go (if 
he were ]3ermitted) ; He might have gone (if he had been 
permitted to do so). 

Examples. 

Present: If he be careful, etc. 

Past : If he were careful, etc. 

Future: ^f ^^^ shall be careful, etc. 

Present-Perfect : No form. 

Past Perfect: Had he been careful, etc. 

Future Perfect : No form. 

Remark. — Should may be used in all the persons of 
the future tense to express a mei^e contingency. 

227. The Imperative Mode expresses action or state as 
commanded or desired. 

Remark 1. — The Imperative Mode expresses command, 
purpose, entreaty, prayer, exhortation, permissio7i, or im- 
jyrecation, and has two tenses and three persons. 



108 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

Remark 2. — Will is used in the first person to express 
a promise or a threat. Shall is used in the second and 
third persons to express a command^ a promise^ or a 
threat, 

TENSE. 

228. Tense is that property of a verb which shows 
the time and stage of the action or state. 

229. The action or state expressed by a verb is four- 
fold as to its stage and threefold as to its time. 

1. Indefinite or habitual in present, past or future 

time. 

2. Progressive in present, past or future time. 

3. Perfect in present, past or future time, and — 

4. Continuous in present, past or future time. 

Examples. 
Present — Active, Passive, 

Indefinite: I write. The letter is written. 

Progressive : I am writing. The letter is being written. 
Perfect: I have written. The letter has been written. 

Continuous : I have been writing. 

Past— 

Indefinite : I wrote. * The letter was written. 

Progressive: I was writing. The letter was being written. 
Perfect: I had written. The letter had been written. 

Continuous : I had been writing. 



TENSK 109 



Future-— 

Indefinite: I shall write. The letter will be written. 

Progressive : I shall be writing. 

Perfect : I shall have written. The letter will have been 

[written. 
Continuous : I shall have been writing. 

Person and Number. 

230. The verb has three persons and two numbers. 

Examples. 

Present (Indefinite) Tense. 

Singular. Plural 

1st person I am. We are. 

2nd person Thou art. You are. 

3rd person He is. The}^ are. 

Past (Indefinite) Tense. 

1st person I was. We were. 

2nd person Thou wast You were. 

3rd person He was. The}^ were. 

Remark 1. — The second person singular of the inde- 
finite present and the past tenses has t^ st or est suffixed ; 
as, Thou wilt; Thou ivast; Thou drivest; Thou drovest. 

Remark 2. — The third person singular of the present 
indefinite tense has s or es^ (in solemn discourse th or eth) 
suffixed; as, He writes; He zvatches; He liatli; He speak- 
etJi, The forms ending in st or th are used in prayer, 
poetry, or in other solemn modes of speech. 



110 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

231. Written Exercises. 

1. Write five sentences expressing action or state in» 
definitely. 

Model. — The man comes on Thursdays. 

2. Write five sentences expressing action or state pro- 
gressivel3^ 

Modp:l.^ — The man is coming up the street. 

3. Write five sentences expressing action or state as 
completed. 

Model. — The man has just come home. 

4. Write five sentences expressing action or state as 
continuing up to a certain time. 

Model. — The man will have been dri\dng two hours 
before he arrives, 

232. Review Exercises. 

1. Write sentences using the proper form of the verb to 
express any given stage of an act or state, and then change 
the form to express other stages. 

a. The Habitual Stage. 
Examples. 

1. The girl reads novels. 

2. The tree bears fine fruit. 

3. The watch keeps correct time. 

4. Leaves have their time to fall. 



CHAI^GING VERB FORMS. lU 



b. The Incomplete Stage. 
Examples. 

1. The boys are playing foot-ball. 

2. The bells are ringing wedding chimes. 

3. The rivers are rising rapidly. 

4. The leaves are falling in masses. 

Changed {Habitual). 

1. The bo3^s play foot-ball on Saturdayia. 

2. Merry bells ring wedding chimes. 

3. Rivera rise at certain seasons. 

c. The Completed Stage. 

Examples. 

1. The President lias sent his messao;e to Cono-ress. 

2. The jur}^ has found the prisoner guilty. 

3. Congress has voted to adjourn sine die. 

Changed (^Habitual). 

1. The President sends messages to Congress. 

2. Juries find verdicts which convict or acquit. 

3. Congress passes a joint resolution to adjourn. 

d. The Continuous Stage. 

Examples. 

1. The gentlemen have been hunting a week. 

2. The girl has been reading novels all day. 

3. It has been raining for a month. 

Changed {Incomplete). 

1. The gentlemen are hunting. 

2. The girl is reading ^ 'David Copperfield." 

3. It is raining very hard. 



112 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 



2. Write sentences using the proper form to express an 
act or state in some given time and then change the verb to 
express other times. 

Example. 

Feeble, at best, is my endeavor! 
I see, but cannot reach, the height 
That lies forever in the light. 
And yet forever and forever. 
When seeming just within my grasp, 
I feel my feeble hands unclasp, 
And sink discouraged into night. 

Change the verbs to express past time ; — future time. 

3. Write five sentences expressing potential acts or 

states. 

Model. — The man may die from his wounds. 

4. Change the verbs into the progressive form. 
Model. — -The man may be dying now. 

5. Write five sentences expressing what was possible 
at some past time. 

Model.— The man might have succeeded. 

6. Write five sentences expressing what is possible 
in present time. 

Model. — I could paint the bow upon the bended 
heavens. 



CONJUGATION. 113 



CONJUGATION. 

233. Conjugation involves a consideration of — 
I. The inflections of the verb, and 

II. The auxiliaries that help out inflection. 

234. There are two waj^s of inflecting verbs: 
I. The Old or Strong Conjugation, and 

II. The New or Weak Conjugation. 

Eemakk. — The two conjugations differ in the manner 
in which they form the past tense and the past parti- 
ciple. 

235. The verb has four other inflected forms which con- 
sist of endings suffixed to the Principal Parts, 

Illustration. 

Old Conjugation. Neio Conjugation, 

Present tense, 1st person drive call 

" " 2nd " drivest callest 

' ' " 3rd ' ' drives or driveth calls or calleth 

Past tense, 1st x)erson drove called 

'' '' 2nd '' drovest calledst 

Present Participle driving calling 

Past " driven called 

In the New Conjugation the Past Tense and the Pp-st 
Participle are alike. 



114 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

THE INFLECTION OF THE PRINCIPAL 
PARTS, 

I. THE NEW CONJUGATION. 

236. The New Conjugation has the past tense and 
the past participle aUke, forming these parts by suffixing 
ri, ed or t to the present, and sometimes changing its 
vowel. 

REGULAR VERBS, 

237, The past tense and past participle of weak verbs 
is regularly formed b}^ suffixing ed to the present. 

, Examples. 

Add, added; knot, knotted; love, loved. 

IIp:mark 1. — Ed forms a separate syllable after d or 

t ; as, tiuist, twisted ; re,s^, rested; tved^ ivedded, 

Remark 2. — Ed is pronounced like t after the sounds 

of |7, ch^ kj /, s, sJi^ and x; as stopped^ tvatched^ looked^ 
laughed^ kissed^ luished^ coaxed. 

Remark 3. — The past tense and past participle of 
bejid^ blend^ build^ gild^ gird, lend^ rend^ send^ spejid^ 
and tuend have t instead of d. 

Remark 4. — Have^ hear^ mdke^ lay^ and say have had 
heard^ made^ laid, and said for their past tense and 
past j^articiple. 

Re3IArk 5, — Bleed^ breeds feed., lead, read and speed 
have bled, bred, fed, led, read and sped for their past 



1 



REGULAR VERBS. 



115 



tense and past participle. Shoe has shod and lie has 
lied. Tell and sell have told and sold. 

Kemark 6. — Learn ^ pen^ spell ^ and siJill annex t for 
the past tense and past participle. 

238. The past tense and the past participle of the 
following verbs is formed by changing the vowel of the 
present and suffixing t to it. 



a. 



b. 



t Tense. 


Past Tense, 


Past Participle, 


Long vowel shortened. 




cleave 


cleft 


cleft 


creep 


crept 


crept 


dream 


dreamt 


dreamt 


kneel 


knelt 


knelt 


leave 


left 


left 


hght 


lit 


ht 


mean 


meant 


meant 


sleep 


slept 


slept 


sweep 


swept 


swept 


weep 


wept 


wept 



Change the vowel to a or 6. 

bring brought 

buy bought 

catch caught 

seek sought 

teach taught 

think thought 

work wrought 



brought 

bought 

caught 

sought 

taught 

thought 

wrought 



116 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 



^Remark 1. — The verbs heat^ bet^ burst, cast, cut, 
durst, hit, hurt, let, put, rid, set, shed, shred, shut, slit 
split, spread and thrust, have the same form for each 
of the principal parts. 

II. THE OLD CONJUGATION. 

239. Verbs of the Old Conjugation form the past tense 
by changing the vowel of the present tense. The past 
participles of these verbs are variously formed. 

1. The past participle of the following verbs is formed 
by suffixing n or en to the present tense. 



Present Tense. 


Past Tense. 


Past Participle. 


arise 


arose 


arisen 


bid 


bade 


bidden 


blow 


blew 


blown 


draw 


drew 


drawn 


drive 


drove 


driven 


eat 


ate 


eaten 


fall 


fell 


fallen 


forbid 


forbade 


forbidden 


forsake 


forsook 


forsaken 


give 


gave 


given 


grow 


grew 


grown 


know 


knew 


known 


ride 


rode 


ridden 


rise 


rose 


risen 


see 


saw 


seen 



REGULAR VERBS. 



117 



Present Tense. 




Past Tense. 




Past Participle. 


shake 




shook 




shaken 


slay 




slew 




slain 


smite 




smote 




smitten 


stride 




strode 




stridden 


strive 




strove 




striven 


take 




took 




taken 


thrive 




throve 




thriven 


throw 




threw 




thrown 


2. The past partici] 


pie of the following 


verbs is formed 


by suffixing n i 


3r en 


to the past 


tense. 




bear 




bore 




borne (born) 


bite 




bit 




bitten 


break 




broke 




broken 


chide 




chide (chid) 


chidden 


choose 




chose 




chosen 


cleave {to 


split) 


clove 




cloven 


freeze 




froze 




frozen 


get 




got 




gotten 


hide 




hid 




hidden 


he 




lay 




lain 


shear 




shore 




shorn 


speak 




spoke 




spoken 


steal 




stole 




stolen 


tear 




tore 




torn 


tread 




trod 




trodden 


wear 




wore 




worn 


weave 




wove 




woven 



118 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAK 

3. The past participle in the following verbs has a 
vowel differing from the present and past. 



beget 


begat 


begotten 


begin 


began 


begun 


% 


flew 


flown 


ring 


rang 


rung 


sing 


sang 


sung 


spin 


span 


spun 


spring 


sprang 


sprung 


swim 


swam 


swum 



Remark. — Come and run (with their compounds), and 
spit use the form of the present tense for the past parti- 
ciple. 



come 


came 


come 


run 


ran 


run 


spit 


spat 


spit 



4. The past tense and the past participle in the 
following verbs are aWke in form. 



behold 


beheld 


beheld 


bind 


bound 


bound 


cling 


clung 


clung 


dig 


dug 


dug 


fight 


fought 


fought 


find 


found 


found 


fling 


flung 


flung 



REDUNDANT VERBS. 



119 



grind 


ground 


ground 


hang 


hung (hanged) 


hung (^hanged) 


hold 


held 


held 


slide 


slid 


sUd 


sling 


slung 


slung 


slink 


slunk 


slunk 


stand 


stood 


stood 


stick 


stuck 


stuck 


sting 


stung 


stung 


string 


strung 


strung 


swing 


swung 


swung 


win 


won 


won 


wind 


wound 


wound 


wring 


wrung 


wrung 



REDUNDANT VERBS. 

240. Some verbs have two forms for the past 
participle : 



lade 


laded 


laded or laden 


mow 


mowed 


mowed o?- mown 


rive 


rived 


rived or riven 


saw 


sawed 


sawed 0?^ sawn 


show 


showed 


shown or showed 


sow 


sowed 


sowed or sown. 



Remakk. — The tendenc}^ of speech is to drop old 
(irregular) forms and use new ones. 



1^0 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAB. 



SUMMARY OF THE INFLECTED FORMS OF 
THE VERB. 

241. Principal Parts. — The Principal Parts of a 
verb are the present indefinite, the past indefinite and 
the past participle. 

New Conjugation. 
To cry. 

Past Tense, 
cried 



Present Tense, 
cry 

Present Tense. 

Singular, 
1st person, I cry. 
2nd " Thou criest. 
3rd " He cries or crieth. 



Past Participle, 
cried 



Plural, 
We cry. 
Ye or you cry. 
They cry. 



1. I cried. 

2. Thou criedest. 

3. He cried. 



Past Tense. 

1. We cried. 

2. Ye or you cried. 

3. They cried. 

Imperative^ cry. Infiyiitive^ To cry. 

Participles. 

Present^ crying. Past^ cried. 

Old Conjugation. 
To take. 

Present Tense, Past Tense, Past Participle. 

take took taken 



AUXILIARY VERBS. 121 



Present Tense. 

1. I take. 1. We take. 

2. Thou takest. 2. Ye or you take. 

3. He takes, or taketh. 3. They take. 

Past Tense. 

1. I took. 1. We took. 

2. Thou tookest. 2. Ye or 3^ou took. 

3. He took. 3. They took. 

Imperative^ take. Infinitive, to take. 

Participles. 
Present^ taking. Past^ taken. 

242. Written Exercises. 

1. Write a summary of the inflected forms of add^ 
read, learn, teach, and study ; use as a model the form 
given for cyj, 

2. Write a summary of the inflected forms of hloiv, 
draio, begin, fight and soiv, using as a model the forms 
given for take, 

AUXILIARY VERBS. 

243. Auxiliary Verbs are verbs joined to other verbs 
to help form the tenses not expressed by inflection. 

244. The principal auxiliary verbs are be, have, 
shall, and will. Do, may, can, must, ought and go 
are also auxiUaries. 



122 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 



245. Conjugation of the Auxiliaries. 
TO BE. 



Present Tense, 


Past 


Tense, 


Past Participle, 


am 


was 
Present Tense. 


been 


Singular, 






Plural, 


1. I am. 




1. 


We are. 


2. Thou art. 




2. 


Ye or you are. 


3. He is. 




3. 


They are. 




Past 


Tense. 




1. I was. 




1. 


We were. 


2. Thou wast. 




2. 


Ye or you were. 


3. He was. 




3. 


They were. 


Conditional Forms. 




Prese> 


^T Tense. 




1. If I be. 




1. 


If we be. 


2. If thou be. 




2. 


If ye or you be 


3. If he be. 




3. 


If they be. 




Past 


Tense. 




1. If I were. 




1. 


If we were. 


2. If thou wert 




2. 


If ye or you were 


3. If he were. 




3. 


If they were. 


Imperative^ be. 




Infinitive^ to be. 



AUXILIARY VERBS. 



123 





Participles. 




Present, bein< 


3". 

TO HAVE. 


Past^ been. 


Present Tense. 


Past Tense. 


Past Partici2:)le. 


have 


had 
Present Tense. 


had 


1. I have. 


1. 


We have. 


2. Thou hast. 


2. 


Ye or you have. 


3. He has. 


3. 

Past Tense. 


They have. 


1. I had. 


1. 


We had. 


2. Thou hadst. 


2. 


Y^e or 3^ou had. 


3. He had. 


3. 


They had. 


Imperative^ have. 


Infinitive, to have. 




Participles. 




Present ^ ha\ing. 


Past, had. 




SHALL. 






Present Tense. 




1. I shall. 


1. 


We shall. 


2. Thou Shalt. 


2. 


Ye or you shall. 


3. He shall 


3. 
Past Tense. 


They shall. 


1. I should. 


1. 


We should. 


2. Thou shouldst. 2. 


Ye or you should. 


3. He should. 


3. 


They should. 



124 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 



Remark. — Shall and luill are defective verbs, that is, 


they 


lack some parts. 

WILL. 

Present Tense. 




1. 


I will. 1. 


We will. 


2. 


Thou wUt. 2. 


Ye or you will. 


3. 


He will. 3. 
Past Tense. 


They will. 


1. 


I would. 1. 


We would. 


2. 


Thou wouldest. 2. 


Ye or you would. 


3. 


He would. 3. 
TO DO. 


They would. 


Present Tense. Past Tense, 


Past Particijjle. 




do did 


done 



Present Tense. 

1. I do. 1. We do. 

2. Thou dost or doest. 2. Ye or you do. 

3. He does, or doth. 3. They do. 

Past Tense. 

1. I did. 1. We did. 

2. Thou didst. 2. Ye or you did. 

3. He did. 3. They did. 

Invperative^ do. Infinitive^ to do. 



AUXILIARY VERBS. 



125 





Participles 








Present^ doing. 




Past^ done. 




MAY. 








Present Tense. 




1. 


I may. 


1. 


We may. 


2. 


Thou ma^^est. 


2. 


Ye or 3^ou may. 


3. 


He may. 


3. 


They may. . 




Past Tense. 




•1 
J.. 


I might. 


1. 


We might. 


2. 


Thou mightest. 


2. 


Ye or 3^ou might. 


3. 


He might. 

CAN. 


3. 


They might. 




Present Tense. 




1. 


I can. 


1. 


We can. 


2. 


Thou canst. 


2. 


Ye or you can. 


3. 


He can. 

Past Tense 


3. 


They can. 



1. I could. 

2. Thou couldst. 

3 . He could. 



1. We could. 

2. Ye or you could. 

3. They could. 



Remark. — Must, ought and going are words used as 
auxiliaries. 



126 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

246. USES OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 

Shall in the first person and will in the second and 
the third persons are used to form the future tenses. 

Eemark.— -In the second and third persons, shall ex- 
presses obHgation. In the third person loill expresses 
intention. 

247. Have is used with the past participle to show 
that an action or state is completed. Have is also used 
to express compulsion ; as, / have to go, 

248. Be is used with the present participle to ex- 
press progressive action or state; — with the past partici- 
ple, the forms of he help to form the ^^assrt'e voice. 

249. Have or had is also used with been and 2^ pres- 
ent participle to express continuous action or state. 

250. The verb to do has three uses, viz: 

a. Do is combined with the present form of a verb 

to express emphasis ; as, I do adore him ; How 
he did storm ! ye gods, it doth amuse me ! 

b. Do is used with the present form of a verb to 

ask questions ; as, Do you skate ? Did he tell 
you ? 

c. Do is used as a substitute for other verbs ; as, 

Pronounce the speech as I cZo ; He acted better 
than I could have done. 



USES OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 127 

Kemark. — Do is used for a verb just as a pronoun is 
used for a noun, and might be termed a i^'^^o-verh, 

251. May expresses permission or possibility; as, I 
may go ; You may be in time. 

When may is placed before its subject, it expresses a 
wish; as. May peace attend you! Might expresses past 
permission reported in present time ; as. He sent word 
that 1 might come, 

252. Can and could express power; as, I can write; 
He could not come. Could also expresses present power 
conditionally ; as, He could come, if he would. 

253. Must expresses necessity or compulsion ; as, 
Man must labor ; It m^ust be true. 

254. Ought expresses moral obligation and is joined 
to the present and to the perfect infinitives ; as, We 
ought to do justly and love mercy ; They ought to have 
come, 

255. Going is used with the present infinitive to ex- 
press intention ; as, I am going to tvrite ; I was going to 
remain ; I had been going to drive. 

256. Written Exercises. 

1. Write five sentences illustrating different uses of 
shall and loill. 

Model. — "Thou shalt not steal." 



128 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

2. Write five sentences illustrating the uses of have 
and had. 

Model. — "The lessons had been learned." 

3. Write five sentences using the forms of he as form- 
ing the passive voice. 

Model. — I am deserted. 

4. Write five sentences showing the use of have with 
been and the present participle. 

Model. — I have been writing. 

5. Write five sentences illustrating the three uses of 
the verb do. 

Model. — How do jow. do? 

6. Write five sentences showing the uses of may and 
might. 

Model. — He might have seen him. 

7. Write five sentences showing the uses of can and 
could. 

Model. — -I coidd paint the bow upon the heavens. 

8. Write five sentences showing the uses of must^ 
ought and going. 

Model. — The ball must be lost. 

9. Point out the auxiliaries in a given selection and 
tell what they express. 

257. A Synopsis is a complete summary of the modes, 
tenses and voices of a verb in a single number and 
person. 



SYNOPSIS OF BUILD. 



129 



258. Synopsis of the verb build. 
Indicative Mode. 
Present—- 

Active Voice. Passive Voice, 

Indefinite: He builds. The house is built. 

Progressive : He is building. The house is being built. 



The house has been built. 
(^Wanting. ^ 



Perfect: He has built. 

Continuous : He has been 
[building. 

Past — 
Indefinite: He built. 
Progressive : He was building. The house was being built. 



The house was built. 



The house had been built. 
( Wanting, ) 



Perfect : He had built. 

Continuous : He had been 

[building. 

Future — 

Indefinite: He will build. 
Progressive : He will be build- 
[ing. 

Perfect : He will have built. The house will have been 

Continuous : He will have been ( Wanting, ) 

[building. 

Potential Mode. 



The house will be built. 
(^Wanting. ^ 

[built. 



Present — 

Indefinite: He may build. 
9 



The house may be built. 



130 COMPEETE COTTRSE tN XANGUAGE AISTD GRAMMAR. 

Progressive : He may be build- The house may be building. 

[ing. 

Perfect : He may have built. The house may have been 

[built. 
Continuous : He may have been ( Wanting. ) 

[building. 
Past — 
Indefinite: He miglit build. The housfe might be built. 
Progressive : He might be build- The house might be build- 

[ing. [ing. 

Perfect : He might have The house might have been 

[built. [built. 

Continuous : He might have ( Wanting. ) 

been building. 

Subjunctive Mode. 
Present — 

Indefinite: If he build. If the house be built. 

Progressive : If he be building. If the house be building. 
Perfect: If he have built. If the house have been 

[built. 
Continuous : If he have been (^Wanting.) 

[building. 
Past — 
Indefinite: If he built. If the house were built. 

Progressive : If he were build- If the house were building. 



SYNOPSIS OF BUILD. 131 

Perfect : If lie have built. If the house had been built. 

Con^/?iHO?i6'; If he have been (^Wanting,) 

[building. 

Future — 

Indefinite: If he should build. If the house should be built. 

Progressive : If he should be If the house should be built, 
[building. 

Perfect: If he should have If the house should have 
[built. [been ])uilt. 

Continuous : If he should have (^Wanting, ^ 

[been building. 

Imperative Mode. 
Let him build. Let the house be built. 

Verbals. 
Infinitives. 
Indefinite : . To build. To be built. 

Progressive: To be building. (^Wanting.) 

Perfect: To have built. To have been built. 

Continuous : To have been building. (^Wanting.) 

Participles. 

Indefinite: built. (being) built. 
Progressive : building. * ( Waiiting. ) 

Perfect: having built. ^ having been built. 

Continuous: having been building. (Wanting,) 



132 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

259. Written Exercises. 

1. Write the synopsis of some verb in the first person 
singular. 

2. Write the sjmopsis of some verb in the first person 
phiral. 

3. Write the synopsis of some verb in the second 
person singular. 

4. Write the synopsis of some verb in the third 
person singular. 



THE FORMATION AND USE OF THE 
PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

260. The principal parts of a verb are the forms used 
in conjugating it, viz : the Present, the Past, the 
Past Participle, and the Present Active Participle. 

261. The Past is formed from the Present by a change 
of vowel, or by annexing d, eel or t; as arise, arose ; 
beseech, hesougJd; love^ loved; add^ added; send^ sent, 

262. The Past Participle is either like the past in form, 
or it affixes n or en to the present or past forms ; 
as, tear^ tore^ torn; arise^ qrose^ arisen, 

263. The Present Active Participle is formed by suf- 
fixing i7ig to the present form. 



FORMING THE PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLE. 133 

264. Rules for forming the present active participle. 

I. Drop final e before suffixing ing, except in 
dyeing^ singeing^ springeing^ sioingeing^ tinge- 
ing^ lioeing^ toeing^ and shoeing ; as, give^ giving; 
eye^ eying; change^ changing; dance^ dancing. 

II. When words end in ie, put y for ie before 
ing; as, die^ dying; vie^ vying. 

III. When a final syllable is accented and 
ends in a single consonant, the final 
consonant is doubled before suffixing ing ; 

as, ru7i^ running ; get, getting ; confer^ conferring ; 
commit^ committing. 

lY. When the final syllable is not accented, 
the final consonant is not doubled; as, 

remember^ remembering. 

265. Exercise. 

1. Learn the principcd parts of the folloioing ten 
verbs: Am or be, was, been; arise, arose, arisen; bear, 
bore, borne or born ; beat, beat, beaten ; beget, begat, 
begotten ; begin, began ; and write their present active 
participles. 

REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS. 

266. Verbs in regard to the form of their 23rincipal 
parts ai-e of two kinds, Yizi Regular Verbs and 
Irregular Verbs. 



134 COMPLETE COUBSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

267. Regular Verbs are verbs which form then* past 
tense and past participle by suffixing d or ed to 
the present form. 

268. Irregular Verbs are verbs which form their past 
tense and past participle by a change of vowel. 

269. Regular Verbs are of two kinds, viz: 

I. Verbs ending in d or t, which suffix the 
syllable ed ; as, acZc?, added; lued, icedded; 
whet, ivhetted. 

ExcEPTiox 1. — Lend, rend, send, sj)end and misspend 
change final d for t. 

Exception 2. — Bend, bet, blend ^ build, gild, girt (be, 
en, un), knit, qnit, slit, spit, srceat and wet are 
Redundant. 

Exception 3. — Burst, cast, cost, cut, hit, hurt, let, 
put, rid, set (reset), shed, shred, shut, spread and 
thrust use the same form for each of the principal 
parts. Must is defective. 

II. Verbs ending in other sounds than d or t 
suffix d or ed but it does not constitute 
a separate syllable ; as, love, loved; ring, 
ringed; droivn, droimied; delay, delayed. 

Remark 1,—Lay, pay, say and their compounds put 
ai for ay and suffix d; as, lay^ laid; pay^ paid; say, 



JEXERCISES. m 

said. Have and make drop the final consonant and 
substitute d; as, make, made; have, had. 

Eemark 2. — After p, cli, k, f, pli, x, s, and sh ed 
is pronounced like t ; as, dipped, snatched, locked j 
quaffed, washed, hoxed, 

270. Exercise. 

Take some selection in the Reader and let ^the 
pupil find all the verbs, give their principal parts, tell 
whether they are Regular or Irregular, and tell in 
what voice, mode, tense and form they are. 

2. Write the present active p)articiples of these verbs: 
began, begun; bid, bade, bidden; bite, bit, bitten; blow, 
blew, blown ; break, broke, broken. 

3. Write a synopsis of break in the first p>erso7i, 

4. Write sentences rising two or "more, of these forms 
in each. 

Model. 

The wind hloius more furiously now than it blew 
yesterday. While the wind teas bloiving yesterday, the 
roof of Mr. A's barn teas bloivn off. 

271. Exercise. 

1. Learn the foUoiving p)rincipal parts: Chide, chid, 
chidden; choose, chose, chosen; do, did, done (^misdo, 
undo, overdo) ; draw, drew, drawn (ivithdraw) ; drive, 



136 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

drove, driven ; drink, drank, drunk ; fall, fell, fallen ; 
(befall)'^ fly, flew, flown; flow, flowed, .(^overflow'); for- 
sake, forsook, forsaken ; (^forbear ^ forbid, forgot, forpass) ; 
freeze, froze, frozen. 

2. Write the present active participles. 

3. Write a synopsis of clraiu in the second person 
singular. 

4*. Write sentences using one or more forms of the given 
verbs. 

Model. 

In choosing a friend, I should choose a different per- 
son than you have chosen. 

You chose an unprincipled man and hence 3^our choice 
is a had one. 

Caution. — When the third form of a verb is used, it 
must alwa3^s have some form of be or have before it ; 
as, icas done, has done, 

272. Exercise. 

1. Learn the following 2^^^i^^cip(^^ P^^^^t^ ' 

Get, got, gotten ; give, gave,' given ; (^forgive, mis- 
give) ; grow, grew, grown, (^out-groic) ; hide, hid, hidden ; 
know, knew, known, (forek7ioiv) ; lie, lay, lain ; lay, 
laid ; ride, rode, ridden ; rang, rung, rung ; rise, rose, 
risen; see, saw, seen, (^foresee); shake, shook, shaken; 
sit, sat; slay, slew, slain; slide, slid, slidden ; smite, 
smote, smitten. 



EXERCISES. 137 

2. Write the present active participles. 

3. Write a synopsis of cjroio in tlie third person 
singular. 

4. Write sentences using two or more of the forms 
of the given verb. 

Model. ' 

^Yliile a groimng child is receiving its growth^ it should 
not be inured to hardship like grown persons. The oak 
which is groiving in the lane, was groum from an acorn 
which fell from a tree which began to groic when my 
grandfather was a child. 

Remark. — Participles are often used as descriptive 
adjectives, and nouns are formed from verbs; as, groicth, 
motion^ movement. 

Such words are called Paronyms and pupils should use 
them freely in tins part of the exercise. 

273. Exercise. 

1. Learn tlie following irrincipal j)ar^.s; 

Speak, spoke, spoken ; steal, stole, stolen ; stride, 
strode, stridden ; strive, strove, striven ; swear, swore, 
sworn ; swim, swam, swum ; take, took, taken, (hetaJie^ 
mistake^ overtake^ retake^ undertake^ ; tear, tore, torn ; 
thrive, throve, thriven; throw, threw, thrown; tread, 
trod, trodden; wearj wore, worn; weave, wove, woven; 
write, wrote, written. 



im COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAB. 

2. Write the present active participles. 

3. Write a Synopsis of take in the 1st person 
phiral. 

4. Make sentences using paronyms and synonyms. 

Model. 

By a stealthy pretext, moving stealthily the officer 
stole up to the thief who had stolen the property and 
arrested him. He was tried for larceny^ his thieving 
habits were proved, and the law punished him for his 
theft. 

Exercise. 

1. Learn the foUoning principal parts: 

(a) Come, become and overcome ; run, outrun and 

overrun, use the same form for the past parti- 
ciple. The past form of these verbs is, came, 
became and overcame ; ran, outran and overran. 

(b) Go, forego and undergo use went, forewent and 

underwent for the past, and gone, foregone and 
undergone for the past participle. 

(c) Rive and show use rived and showed for the 

past, and riven and shown for the past partici- 
ple ; sing, sang, sung ; sink, sank, sunk. 

2. Form the present-active participles of these verbs. 

3. Give a synopsis of go in the second person plural. 

4. Use these forms in sentences. 



£:XERCIBES. 1S9 



Model. 
He was overcome by what he underwent. 
He outran me but came near being overrun by the 

train. 

275. Exercise. 

1 . Learn the following : 

Abide, abode ; bleed, bled ; breed, bred ; cling, clung ; 
feed, fed ; find, found ; fling, flung ; grind, ground ; hold, 
held, (behold^ uphold^ loithliold) ; lead, led, (^mislead') ; 
meet, met ; read, read ; shoot, shot, (^overslioot^ ; shrink, 
shrunk ; sling, slung. 

2. Write the present-active participles. 

3. Give a synopsis o*f find in the third person i)lural. 

4. Compose sentences using these forms with syn- 
onyms and paronyms. 

Model. 

He built a beautiful residence as a Jiome^ where he 
now resides. He removed from the house in which he 
formerly lived and will abide where he now is. 

276. Exercise. 

1. Learn the following: 

Slink, slunk ; speed, sped ; spin, spun ; spring, 
sprung ; stand, stood (^understand, icitlistand) ; stick, 
stuck ; sting, stung ; strike, struck ; string, strung ; 
swing, swung; win, won; wind, wound (^imiviiid) ; 
wrino;, wruno:. ' 



140 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

2. Form the present-active j^articiples. 

3. Conjugate strike in the Indicative mode, active 
voice, future tense. 

4. Use tliese forms in sentences. 

Eemark. — Holden, beholden, shrunken, sunken and 
stricken are used as adjectives. 

277. Exercise. 

1. Learn the following : 

Beseech, besought ; bring, brought ; buy, bought ; 
catch, caught ; fight, fought ; ma}^, might ; seek, sought ; 
teach, taught; think, thought; work, wrought; creep, 
crept ; deal, dealt ; feel, felt ; flee, fled ; hear, heard ; 
keep, kept; leave, left; lose, lost; sell, sold; shoe, 
shod ; shall, should ; can, could ; will, would ; sleep, 
slept; tell, told; weep, wept. 

Remark. — May^ can^ tcill and shall are defective 
verbs, their j^ast form not being used as a past parti- 
ciple. Ma}^, can and shall have no present-active 
participles. 

2. Write the present-active participles. 

3. Conjugate teach in the potential mode, past per- 
fect tense, both voices. 

4. Use these forms in sentences. 



EXERCISES. 141 



278. Exercise. 

1. Learn the following ten verbs, which liave two 
forms for both the iKist and the past j^ct^ticq^le : 

Awake, awoke or awaked; bereave, bereft or be- 
reaved; cleave, clove or cleft; dig, dug or digged; eat, 
ate or eat, eaten or eat; hang, hung or hanged; kneel, 
knelt or kneeled; shine, shone or sinned; stave, stove 
or staved ; work, wrought or worked. 

Remakk. — Crow uses ci^etv or crowed in the past and 
crowed as the past participle. 

2. Form the present-active participles. 

3. Conjugate shine in the present-perfect indicative, 
active voice, both forms. 

4. Make sentences illustrating the use of both forms. 

279. Exercise. 

1. Learn the following which have two forms for 
the past participle: 

Bake, baked, baked or baken; clothe, clothed, 
clothed or clad; engrave, engraved, engraved or en- 
graven; freight, freighted, freighted or fraught; grave, 
graved, graved or graven; hew, hewed, hewed or hewn; 
lade, iaded, laded or laden; load, loaded, loaded or 
laden; melt, melted, melted or molten; mow, mowed, 
mowed or mown; prove, proved, proved or proven; 
saw, sawed, sawed or sawn; seethe, seethed, seethed or 



142 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

sodden; shape, shaped shaped or shapen (^misshaped); 
shave, shaved, shaved or shorn (unshaved) ; sow, sowed, 
sowed or sown; shear, sheared, sheared or shorn; 
strew, strewed, strewed or strown; swell, swelled 
swelled or swollen; wax, waxed, waxed or waxen. 

Remark. — The second forms are generally obsolescent. 

2. Write the present-active participles of bake^ clothe, 
engrave, lade, j^^^^^i seethe, shape and shave, 

3. Conjugate hew in the future-perfect tense, both 
voices. 

4. Write sentences illustrating the use of redundant 
forms. 

COMPARISON. 

280. Comparison is that property of an adjective 
or adverb which expresses quality or manner in a higher 
or lower degree. 

281. There are three degrees of Comparison, viz., 
the Positive degree, the Comparative degree, and the 
Superlative degree. 

282. The Positive degree of a word susceptible of 
comparison, is its unchanged form. 

Examples. 
Good, bad, little, well, soon, much. 



COMPARISON. 143 



Illustrations, 

The word good denotes the mere existence of the 
quahty of goodness^ and is said to be in the Positive 
degree. Better shows that the quahty of goodness exists 
in a greater degree in one object than in another, and 
is said to be in the Comparative degree. Best shows 
that the quahty of goodness exists in one object in a 
greater degree than in two or more other objects, and 
is said to be in the Superlative degree. Tims: John 
is a good boy ; George is a better boy than John ; but 
William is the best boy in the class. 

283. The Comparative degree of an adjective or an 
adverb is the form which expresses more intensity in one 
quality or act than in another. 

Examples. 
Better, worse, less, sooner, more, prettier. 

284. The Comparative degree of a descriptive 
adjective is formed by suffixing r or er to the positive 
form, or by placing more or less before it. 

Examples. 
Wise, wiser ; swift, swifter ; nice, nicer ; honorable, 
more honorable ; studious, less studious. 

285. The Superlative degree of an adjective or an 
adverb is the form which shows that quality or manner 
is more intense in one object or act than in two or 
more others. 



144 COMPLETE COUP.SE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

Examples. 

Best, worst, least, soonest, bitterest. 

286. The Superlative degree of a descriptive adjec- 
tive is formed by suffixing st or est to the positive 
form, or by placing most or least before it. 

Examples. 

Wise, wisest ; swift, swiftest ; nice, nicest ; honorable, 
most honorable ; studious, least studious. 

Rule for forming the Comparative and Superlative. 

287. Suffix T or er for the comparative, and st or 
est for the superlative to monosyllabic adjectives and 
also to dissyllabic adjectives whose final syllable begins 
with a consonant. 





Examples. 




pure. 


purer. 


purest. 


holy. 


holier. 


holiest. 



Some Adjectives and Adverbs are compared irregularly. 
288. Irregular Adjectives. 



Positive^ 


Comparative, 


Sirperlative. 


bad 


worse 


worst 


far 


farther 


farthest 


good 


better 


best 


late 


later or latter 


latest or last 


httle 


lesser or less 


least 


many 


more 


most 


near 


nearer 


nearest or next 



COMPARISON. 145 



Irregular Adverbs. 
ill worse worst 

little less least 

much more most 

well better best 

Kemark. — Fast, faster, fastest; long, longer, longest; 
soon, sooner, soonest, are the only adverbs "which are 
regularlj^ compared. 

289. Other adjectives and adverbs are compared by 
placing more or less before them for the comparative and 
most or least, for the superlative. 

Examples, 

rapid more rapid most rapid 

rapidly more rapidly most rapidly 

piously less piously least piously 

290. Exercise. 

1. Form the comparative and superlative of the foUoiving 
adjectives : 

Able, active, beautiful, bright, calm, delightful, diligent, 
excellent, green, good, large, little, lovely, much, new, old, 
pious, serene, warm, wise. 

2. Form adverbs by suffixing bj and compare them. 

3. Tell the degree of comparison of the following words : 
Braver, brackish, eldest, orange, greener, just, less, 

next, more plentiful, somewhat scarce, very wise, 
youthful. 



146 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

291. Written Exercises. 

1. Write five sentences using adjectives in the com- 
parative degree, and point out the two objects compared. 

Model. — A horse is larger than a hog. 

2. Write five sentences using adjectives in the super- 
lative degree, and j)oint out the three or more objects 
compared. 

Model. — That is the tallest tree in the forest. 

3. Write live sentences using adjectives irregularly 
compared. 

Model. —This is the worst book I ever saw. 

4. Write five sentences using adjectives or adverbs in 
the comparative degree. 

Model. — I have more books than I know what to do 
with. 

5. Write five sentences using adverbs compared by 
suflftxing er or est. 

Model.— I would sooner lose a dime than eat an 
orange. 

292. Topical Review. 

Name the parts of speech. Define each part of speech. 
Name the kinds of nouns ;— pronouns ; — verbs ; — verbals ; 
— adjectives ; — adverbs. 

What is a grammatical property? Name the grammati- 
cal properties. What is inflection? What does inflection 



TOPICAL REVIEW. 147 



include? What is gender? Name and define the genders. 
What forms of words distinguish mascuhne from femi- 
nine? 

What is number? Name and define the two numbers. 

How is the plural of most nouns formed ? When is es to 

be sumxed? — ies 9 — ' s? Of what words is the plural 
irregularly formed? 

What is case? Name and define the cases. How is 
the possessive case formed? What is person? Name and 

define the persons. What is declension? Decline I; 

thou;— he, she, it. 

What is voice? Define active voice ;— passive voice. 
What is mode ? Name and define the modes. What is 
tense? How is action or state expressed as to its time 
and stage? What two things does conjugation involve? 
Name the two ways of inflecting verbs. How many in- 
flected forms has the verb? Give these forms. How 
are weak verbs inflected? — strong verbs? Name some 
redundant verbs. W^hat are auxihary verbs? Name 
them. Conjugate be ;— have ;— shall ;— mil ;— do ;— may ; 
— can. How are auxiliary verbs used? What is a synop- 
sis? How are the principal parts formed? Give the 
rules for forming the present active participle. What 
are regular verbs? — irregular verbs? 

W^hat is comparison? Name the degrees of compari- 
son. Define positive degree ; — comparative degree; — 
superlative degree. How is the comparative degree formed? 
—the superlative degree? Name the irregular adjec- 
tives ;— the irregular adverbs. What adverbs are regu- 
larly compared? 



148 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

SYNOPTICAL REVIEW. 

Parts of speech: noun, proper noun, common noun, 
participial noun ; pronoun, personal pronoun, relative pro- 
noun, interrogative pronoun, adjective pronoun ; verbs, 
transitive, intransitive, copulative ; adjectives, descriptive, 
definitive ; adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, interjec- 
tions. 

Grammatical properties: inflection, genders, masculine, 
feminine, neuter, common, how expressed ; numbers, plural 
number, how formed, regularly, irregular plurals ; case, 
nominative, objective, possessive, how formed; person, 
first person, second person, third person, how expressed ; 
declension of nouns and pronouns; voice, active voice, 
passive voice; mode, indicative mode, potential mode, sub- 
junctive mode, imperative mode, verbals ; tense, three- 
fold in time and four-fold in stage, present, past, future, 
indefinite, progressive, perfect, continuous ; conjugation, 
inflected forms, auxiliaries, principal parts, how formed, 
regular verbs, irregular verbs, redundant verbs, defective 
verbs, present active participles, paronyms ; comparison, 
positive degree, comparative degree, superlative degree, 
how expressed, irregular forms. . 



THOUGHT AND ITS EXPRESSION. 149 



PART III. 

THOUGHT AND ITS EXPEESSION. 



GENERAL DEFINITIONS. 

293. An Idea is a picture of some object, attribute 
or relation formed or awakened in the mind. 

294. A Word is the sign of an idea. 

295. A Thought is a combination of related ideas. 

296. A Sentence is a combination of words expressing 
a thought. 

297. Syntax treats of the analysis and construction 
of sentences. 

FORMS OF SENTENCES. 

298. There are four kinds of sentences, Declarative, 
Interrogative, Imperative, and Exclamatory. 

299. A Declarative Sentence is the form of words 
used in stating a fact. 

Examples. 

The air bites shrewdl}^ Washington was patriotic. 
Howard was philanthropic. It is a nipping and a biting 
aii\ 



150 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

300. An Interrogative Sentence is the form of words 
used in asking a question. 

Examples. 

How much does a cubic foot of air weigh? What 
causes clouds to change their forms? How does 
hoar-frost differ from dew? 

Hemark 1. — A declarative sentence is made interroga- 
tive by putting the subject after the verb or auxiliary. 
Thus : It IS I; Is it I? The air bites shrewdly. Does the 
air bite shrewdly? 

Kemauk 2. — The auxiliaries do, does, did are used 
when the verb has a simple form; as, Does John write? 
Did John write? Do they to rite? Changed form — John 
writes, John wrote, They ivrite, 

301. An Imperative Sentence is the form of words 
which expresses command or entreaty. 

Examples. 

Let the sun shine ; Make the statue well-proportioned ; 
Let the battle be a victory for us but a disaster for our 
enemies; "Thy kingdom come;" "Forgive us our sins;" 
John, go home. 

Kemark 1. — As commands are often addressed to per- 
sons whose names are not mentioned, the subject is 
often omitted, as, Come; Go; Listen, 



FORMS OP SENTENCES. 151 

Eemark 2. — In mandatory language, shall is used to 
express command; as, '^TJioii shall not steal;'' The 
President shall execute the hues. 

Remark 3. — The name of the person addressed is 
often the subject of an imperative sentence; as, ^^Come 
to the garden^ Maud.''' 

302. An Exclamatory sentence is the form of words 
which expresses admiration or some other strong feeling. 

Examples. 

How the sun shines! How well-proportioned that 
statue is ! What a victory for the allies and what a dis- 
aster for Napoleon Waterloo was ! 

IIE3IARK. — How and what are placed before the pred- 
icate of an exclamatory sentence and before the auxil- 
iary of an interrogative sentence. Thus : the declarative 
sentence, Jidia is a heaiUifid girl, may be changed into 
the interrogative sentences, IIoiv is Julia beautiful? 
What is Julia's beauty? or, 7s Julia a beautiful girl? 
or the sentence may be changed into the two exclama- 
tory forms, What a beautiful girl Julia is! or, Hoio 
beautiful Jidia is ! 

303. Exercises. 
Write five sentences of any kind and change them 
into each of the others. Thus: 
Declarative : The wind blows. 



152 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

Interrogative : Does the wind blow? 
Imperative : Let the wind blow. 
Exclamatory : How the wind blows ! 

ELEMENTS OF SENTENCES. 

304. Grammar teaches the connection between ideas 
and words. Ideas are simple or complex and are ex- 
pressed — 

I. By single words. 
II. By groups of words (phrases). 
III. B}^ combinations of words (clauses). 

305. An Element is a distinct j^art of a sentence. It 
may be a word, a group of words, or a combination of 
words. 

306. There are two classes of elements: 
I. Principal Elements, and— • 

II. Subordinate Elements. 

307. The Principal Elements of a sentence are the sub- 
ject, the predicate, and the Copula. 

308. The Subject of a sentence is the word naming 
the person or thing of which something is thought. 

309. The Predicate of a sentence is the word express- 
ing what is thought of a person or thing. 

310. The Copula is some form of the verb to be 
used to join the predicate to the subject. 



ELEMENTS OF SENTENCES. 153 

Eemakk 1. — Logic deals with the forms of thought, 
and employs the terms subject^ jn^edicate and copula to 
note the elements of thought and their combination. Gram- 
mar, on the other hand, deals Tvith the forms of lan- 
guage, and considers these terms as the signs of ideas, 
not as the ideas themselves. Hence, the difference bet- 
ween the logical and the grammatical definitions of the 
terms. 

Remark 2. — The form of the sentence in which the 
copula forms a distinct element, is called a Proposition, 
a form of speech in which a predicate is affirmed or 
denied of a subject ; as, Man is mortal; The rose is red. 

Examples. 
Sentences : John writes ; Mary sings. 
Propositions : John is avritixg ; Mary is singing ; 

Letters are written ; MUton is a poet. 

The Subordinate Elements of a sentence are the adjec- 
tive element, the objective element, and the adverbial 
element. 

311. An Adjective Element answers the questions 
what kind? which one? how many? or whose? 

Remark. — It ma}^ be a word, a group of words, or a 
combination of words joined to a noun to describe or 
point out some person or thing. 



154 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 



Examples. 
John's two friends ake here, 

A- A ' Y 

That elegant shawl is torn. 

A A c 

312. An Objective Element answers the questions 
what? or whom ? after a verb. 

Examples. 
John WTites (^ivhat?) letters. 
Albert struck (^wliom?') George. 

313. An Adverbial element answers the questions when ? 
how long? how often? where? w^hence? w^hither? 
how? why? in what respect? to what degree? 

Examples. 
When: The pupils are studying to-day. 
How long: The soldiers marched ten hours. 
How often : The ship was struck five times. 
Where: Where your treasure is, your heart will be. 
Whence : The family came from Ireland. 
Whither: The men are going to California. 
Hovs^: The regiments attacked gallantly. 
Why : Why do pupils fail to recite ? 
In what respect : The general is desirous of glory. 
To what degree: The professor is a veiy old man. 



4 



CONSTITUENTS OF ELEMENTS. 155 

CONSTITUENTS OF ELEMENTS. 

Elements consist of words, phrases, or clauses. 

314. A Phrase is a group of words consisting of a 
preposition and its dependent words. 

Examples. 
Roses bloom in the spring. 
The legs of the table are broken. 
Give these pictures to your cliildren, 

Eemark 1. — A phrase does the work of a single part 
of speech. 

Hemark 2. — A phrase that does the work of an adjec- 
tive, is called an adjective phrase; as, A crown of 
THORNS icas his earthly diadem. 

Remark 3.- — -A phrase that does the work of a noun, 
is called a substantive phrase; as, He gave his money 

TO HIS SOX. 

Remark 4. — A phrase that does the work of an adverb, 
is called an adverbial phrase; as. The thief concealed 
himself IX the closet. 

315. Exercises. 

1. Write five sentences which shall contain all the 
elements. 

MoDKi.,— Constant boasting always betrays incapacity. 



156 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

2. Write five sentences containing subject, predicate 
and copula modified by words. 

Model.- — A good man is surely very happy. 

3. Write five sentences having its elements modified 
by phrases. 

Model. — A village cf icigivams once stood on the site 
of this j^^oud city. 

4. Write five sentences having its parts modified by 
phrases. 

Model. — -The tender twig of a tree luas covered ivith 
very many fine apples of a russet hue, 

THE CLASSIFICATION OF CLAUSES. 

316. A Clause is a combination of words consisting of 
a conjunctive word, a subject and a predicate, and is 
used as an element of another sentence. 

Remark. — A Clause does the work of a noun, an 
adjective, or an adverb. 

317. There are three kinds of clauses: 
I. Substantive Clauses, 

II. Relative Clauses, and — 
III. Adverbial Clauses. 

318. A Substantive Clause is a sentence used in any 
one of the four relations of subject, predicate, object, 
or appositive. 



CLASSIFICATION OF CLAUSES. 157 

Examples. 

Subject: That the earth moves, has been proved. 

Predicate: Life is ivhat tve make it. 

Object: Gallileo proved that the earth moves, 

Appositive : The statement that the earth moves, has 
been proved. 

Remark. — That and whether are conjunctions used 
to introduce substantive clauses; as, John said that you 
HAD COME ; lie asked v\'hether you had come. 

319. A Relative Clause is a clause of which who, 
whose, whom, which, that, or as, referring to an ante- 
cedent, forms a part. 

Examples. 

The tears which flow and the honors that are paid, 
give hope that the Republic itself may be immortal. 
Gerry was a man who lived to serve his country at 
home and abroad. He is not such a one as you think. 

Eemark 1. — A Relative Clause does the work of an 
adjective ; as, A man ^YUo receives stolen property, is 
the accomplice of thieves. A man whose confidence is 
SHAKEN, acts without energy. The man whom you saw, 
ivas the first man that told the story. 

Remark 2. — The relative clause modifies its antecedent 
in whatever relation the antecedent is placed. 



158 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

320. An Adverbial Clause is a clause which expresses 
place^ time^ cause^ manner or degree. 

Examples. 

See WHERE THE MOUNTAINS KISE. He died BEFORE 

SHE LEFT. They go^ because it is late. Come as storms 
COME. The train moves faster than a crow flies. 

Remark. — An Adverbial clause does the work of 
an adverb; as, If it snow, I shall not go. I shall go^ 
although it snows. Read^ that you may be heard. 
He came, that he might get money. He came, 
because he wanted money. They live, where 
it does not snow. They came, when it did not 
SNOW. They came, as the snow began to fall. He 
stayed longer than you wanted him to stay. 

321. There are seven kinds of adverbial clauses, viz: 

1. Conditional Clauses; as. If ave had the power, 

ive ivould not tvish to reverse this disperisation. 

2. Concessive Clauses; as. Whatever be our 

fate, this Declaration tvill stand. 

3. Final Clauses ; as. Take heed, lest you fall. 

4. Causal Clauses ; as, Be perfect, for I am perfect. 

5. Modal Clauses; as, The tree grows, as the twig 

IS INCLINED. 

6. Local Clauses ; as. We are on the spot, where 

the first scene of our history was LAID. 



CLASSIFICATION OF CLAUSES. 159 

7. Temporal Clauses ; as, While we honor the 
DEAD, i(je do not forget the living. 

Remark. — In Conditional, Concessive, Final and 
Temporal clauses, whenever the verb expresses an 
imaginary action or state, the subjunctive mode 
should be used; as, If he come, it ivill be late; I shall 
go, although it rain. 

322. Exercises. 

1. Write live sentences using substantive clauses. 
Model. — The visible is only avhat we see. 

2. Write sentences using who, whose, whom, 
that, which. 

Model. — There is a respect for ancestors which 
elevates the character, 

3. Write sentences using of which, for which, on 
which, in which, of whom, and upon whom. 

Model. — Earth is the, planet ok which i(je live. 

4. Write five sentences using conditional clauses. 

Model. — If this be frequently the fortune of 
military achievements, it is not ahuays so. 

5. Write five sentences using final clauses. 
Model. — Take care that you do not miss the way. 

6. Write five sentences using causal clauses. 
Model. — Let us go, for it is late. 



160 COMPLETE COUESE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

7. Write five sentences using modal clauses. 
Model. — He knows how it w^as done. 

8. Write five sentences using local clauses. 
Model. — Do you know where the book is? 

9. Write five sentences using temporal clauses. 
Model. — I shall wait till he comes ► 

10. Write five sentences using concessive clauses. 

Model. — Though Warren is the first distinguished 
VICTIM IN the cause OF LIBERTY, Liucohi IS the last, 

FORMS OF ELEMENTS. 
Simple, compound and complex elements. 

323. A Simple element is an unmodijied word or 

phrase. 

Examples. 

Constant, books, walk, slowly, they^ in haste, on a 
tree, over the river, with an ax. 

324. A Compound element consists of elements con- 
nected by and, but, or, or nor. 

Examples. 
Blue and orange. Mild but firm. Neither true noi^ 
faithful. On the table or in the drawer. In a buggy or 
on horseback. 

325. A Complex element consists of an element modi- 
fied by another element of its own or of a higher class. 



SYMBOLIZATION OF ELEMENTS. 161 

Remark. — A phrase is of a higher class than a simple 
word ; and a clause is higher than either. 

Examples. 
Excellent fruit. Very precious. On the corner of the 
street. Near the tree loliicli stands in the road. 

326. Exercises. 

1. Write five sentences using simple elements. 
Model. — These peaches are unripe, 

2. "Write five sentences using compound elements. 

Model. — John and Mary study and recite geography 
and grammar, 

3. Write five sentences using complex elements. 

Model. — Our neighbor's bees have not yet left their last 
year's hive, 

SYMBOLIZATION OF ELEMENTS. 

327. For the purpose of showing the elements of 
which a sentence consists, a system of symbols, written 
beneath the words, may be conveniently used, viz: 

A single line ( ) indicates the subject. 

A double line (==) indicates the predicate. 

C indicates the copula. 

A indicates an adjective element. 

O indicates an objective element. 

V indicates an adverbial element. 
11 



162 COMPLETE COUESE IN LANGUAGE AND GRA3IMAB, 

1. Words as elements. 
Examples. 
Snow is white. Stars shine. 

Milton is a poet. Flowers bloom. 



4 



Birds build nests. Heat melts snow. 

That young man is a good student. 

A "a '' ~ C A " A — L^___„:; 



Three men came here early this morning. 
A - — - ■ Y y A V 

The column pressed forward very steadily, 

A — - V V 

2. Phrases as elements. 

He is only a man of straw. 
— c V A z=z^ A o 






The bookseller gave the books t o them, 
A -' A o "0 o 

Mary went to town in the cars. 



328. The object of the preposition is connected to 
the preposition by a straight line, and the kind of ele- 
ment is indicated by writing A, O, or V under the 
beginning of the line, as seen above. 

3. Clauses as elem^ents. 

329. A wave-line ( ~) is drawn under the words 

of a subordinate sentence, and its analysis is then written 
under the wave-line just as if it were an independent 
sentence. A brace ( '^ — y — ' ) is written under conjunctive 
words. 



SYMBOLIZATION OF ELEMENTS. 163 



The boy that studies, will learn. 

The boat which you saw, was burnt. 

A 

He asked me whether you had come. 

The man went off after he had sold his farm. 



THE STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 

330. Sentences may be simple, compound, or com- 
plex. 

331. A Simple Sentence is a sentence which contains 
but one subject and one predicate. 

Examples. 

The red roses are not yet fully blown. Benjamin 
Franklin identified electricity with lightning. Morse 
invented the telegraph. 

332. A Compound Sentence is one which consists of 
two or more sentences connected by and, but, or, or 
nor. 

Examples. 

The parents have eaten grapes and the children's teeth 
are set. Time is short but art is long. 

333. A Complex Sentence is one which contains one 
or more other sentences used as parts or modifiers. 



164 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

Examples. 

The man whom you saw, is my intimate friend. Give 
this to the first person that you meet. He shot the deer 
which you saw. The flowers bloom, when the sun shines. 
What you say, is true. I heard what he said. I do not 
know why he did it. 

334. Exercises. 

1. AYrite five compound sentences. 
Model. — The boys work and the girls play. 

2. Write five complex sentences. 
Model. — My friend left before you came. 

THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

335. Analysis is the process of resolving a sentence 
into its constituent elements. 

Examples. 

1. Stars shine. Stars shine is a simple declara- 
tive sentence, of which stains is the subject and shine is 
the predicate. 

2. Do all planets shine steadily? This is a sim- 
ple interrogative sentence. All planets is the complex 
subject. Planets is modified by the adjective all; Shine 
steadily is the complex predicate. Shine is modified by 
the adverb steadily. 



THE STRUCTURE OP SENTENCES. 165 

3. Ruin seize thee, ruthless king. This is a 
simple imperative sentence, expressing an imprecation. 
Ruin is the subject. Seize thee ruthless king is the 
complex predicate. Seize is modified by the complex 
objective element, thee ruthless Mng. King is in 
apposition with thee and is modified by the adjective 
ruthless. 

4. Young men are strong but old men are 
wise. This is a compound declarative sentence consisting 
of two coordinate clauses connected by the conjunction 
hut. Young men is the complex subject of the first 
clause: the base men is modified b}^ the adjective young. 
Strong is the predicate of the first clause joined to the 
subject men b}^ the copula are. Old men is the complex 
subject of the second clause : the base men is modified 
b}^ the adjective old. Wise is the predicate joined to 
the subject men by the copula are, 

5. They went to the city in the cars. This is 
a simple declarative sentence. They is the unmodified sub- 
ject. Went to the city in the cars is the complex predi- 
cate. Went is the basis of the predicate, modified b}^ 
the adverbial phrases to the city and in the cars. The 
phrase to the city consists of the preposition to and the 
dependent words the city. City is modified by the^ an 
adjective element. The phrase in the cars^ consists of 
the preposition in and the dependent words the cars. 
Cars is modified by the^ an adjective element. 



166 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

6. Children who obey their parents, are always 
respected. This is a complex declarative sentence. 
Children ivJio obey their parents is the complex subject. 
The base children is modified by the relative clause ivho 
obey their parents^ an adjective element, consisting of the 
simple subject ivho and the complex predicate obey their 
parents. Obey is modified by the objective element par- 
ents^ which is modified by the adjective element their, 

ANALYSIS BY DIAGRAM. 

By lines. By symbols. ^ 

I. Stars shine. 

Stars I shine 11 Stars shine. 



2. Do planets shine steadily? 

planets I do shine -r^ , , . -.-i -. 

— ' — r — - — --— Do planets shnie steadily r 

steadily = ^- v 



3. Ruin seize thee, ruthless king. 
Ruin I seize I thee Ruin seize thee ruthless king 

I king 



I ruthless 

4. Young men are strong, but old men are wise, 
men I are : strong Young men are strong but 

A ■ • C ■ w-,^ 



young 

a- 

men ^ 



old men are wise, 
are : wise ^ . • q • 



old 

5. They went to the city in the cars. 



ANALYSIS BY DIAGRAM. 167 



TheA' I went. 



I to cit}^ I ill cars 
I the I the 

They went to the city in the cars. 

A === V A O V A O 

6. Children who obey their parents, are always 
respected. 

Children | are : respected 
I w^ho I obey | always 

I parents* 



I their 
Children who obe}^ their parents, are always respected. 



336. Exercises. 
Analyze the following sentences and diagram 
them by either mode: 

I. Simple Sentences involving words only. 
Example. — Ambitious men often deceive themselves. 

A V ^- O 

Exercises. 

1. The birds devour the cherries greedily. 

2. That beautiful tree is an elm. 

3. His youngest child is a girl. 

4. Silvery clouds fringed the horizon. 

5. This little twig bore that large red apple. 

6. A thousand soldiers make a regiment. 

7. Isabella, a pious queen, assisted Columbus. 



168 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

8. He has bruised his thumb severely. 

9. Iron railing is very durable. 

10. Constant occupation prevents temptation. 

II. Simple sentences involving phrases. 

Example. 
The river of time runs through the realm of tears. 



A O — V A O A O 

337. Exercises. 

1. It blends with the ocean of 3^ears 

AVitli a boundless sweep. 

2. The impatient boy now struck the pony on the 
side of the head with his clenched hand. 

3. The maiden's soft hand was laid gently on the 
pony's neck. 

4. The old man laid his hand on her head with a 
tear on his wrinkled face. 

5. The nightingale sh^dy took her head from under 
her wing. 

6. Madam, do joii not wrong j^our children b}" giving 
a part of your last mouthful to a stranger ? 

III. Complex sentences involving clauses. 
Relative ClauseSo 
Example. — The citizens, whom the alarm set in motion, 

came out with caneSo 



THE STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 169 

Remark. — A wave-line (.^-.^-^.-^ .) indicates a clause. 

The relations of the words in the clause are shown below 
the wave-line. Thus: whom the alarm set m motion^ is 
a clause indicated by the wave-line, while the relations of 
the words in the clause to one another is shown by the 
symbols written below the wave-line. 

338. Exercises. 

1. There goes a mean fellow who has not paid my 
father for dressing his hair. 

2. A warrant was issued for Preston who surrendered 
himself to the sheriff. 

3. The patient child whose watchful eye 

Strives after ail things pure and high, 
Shall take their image by and b}^ 

4. I have ever since wondered at the potencj^ which 
lay in that maiden's magic touch. 

5. The key had a wire fastened to it, which communi- 
cated with an electrical machine. 

6. The merriest laugh which then was heard, 

Has changed its tones to maniac screams. 

7. Such is the glorious partnership that shall finally 
monopolize the whole business of quenching thirst. 

8. The beautiful things that God makes are his gifts 
to all ahke. 



170 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GKAMMAR. 

9, Further observations have given me a different 
idea of this feathered voluptuary, which I shall venture 
to impart for the benefit of my young readers who may 
regard him with the same unqualified admiration which I 
once indulged. 

IV. Complex Sentences with Adverbial Clauses. 

Example. — Never brag of catching a fish until he 
is on dry ground. 

339. Exercises. 

1. There's a magical isle up tlie river of Time, 
Where the softest airs are playing. 

2. He would gladly do all the work, if somebody 
else would do the chores. 

3. Small is the pleasure existence can give, 
When the fear we shall die only proves that we live. 

4. If 3^ou prove to be indeed he who you sa}^ you 
are, I have olorious news for you. 

5. An old clock that had stood for fifty 3^ears in a 
farmer's kitchen, without giving any cause for com- 
plaint, early one summer's morning, before the family 
was stirring, suddenly stopped. 

G. The possessor was proceeding homeward, when 
a decrepit, lame, humpbacked invalid, tottering along by 
the aid of a stick, presented himself before him. 



THE STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 171 

7. He sometimes prolongs his strain, when his notes 
are observed to rise and fall in succession. 

8. The seas are quiet when the winds give o'er; 
So calm are we when passions are no more. 

9. For then we know how vain it w^as to boast 
Of fleeting things, too certain to be lost. 

10. When I die, put near me something that has 
loved the light. 

V. Sentences with Compound Elements. 
Example. — Religion mingled icitli the icJioIe course of 

HIS THOUGHTS AND ACTIONS AND SHONE FORTH ill llis VlOSt 

private and unstudied v:ritings. 

Re3Iark. — A phrase or clause modifying some word 
in another phrase or clause is shown by placing its S3^m- 
bol below the other, as shown by the symbols under the 
words of his thoughts and actions, 

340. Exercises. 

1. The crowd quietly dispersed and horse and foot 
began to scour the country. 

2. The lightning leaped from cloud to cloud and 
streamed quivering against the rocks, splitting and 
rending the stoutest forest trees. 

3. That hlac's cleaving cones have burst 

The milk-white flowers revealing, 
And now upon my senses first 
Methinks their sweets are stealing. 



172 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR, 

4. Abou Ben Adhem (may his tribe increase ! ) 
Awolte one night from a deep dream of peace, 
And saw within the moonUght in his room, 
Making it rich and hke a hly in bloom, 

An angel writing in a book of gold. 

5. I have seen a good old father, his locks as 
white as snow, his step slow and trembling, beg in vain 
of his only son to quit the lurking place of the worm. 

6. Several of these reptiles have long infested our 
settlements, to the misery and destruction of many of 
our fellow citizens. 

7. There are visions of conquests, of splendor and 

mirth 
Floating over each drear winter's day. 

8. Columbus was naturally irascible and impetuous 
and keenly sensible to Injury and injustice. 

9. Come, dear old comrade, you and I 

Will steal an hour from da3^s gone by 

The shining days when life was new, 
And all was bright as morning dew — 
The lusty days of long ago 

When 3^ou were Bill and I was Joe. 

10. There was racing and chasing on Cannobie Lea, 
But the lost bride of Netherby ne'er did they see. 

VI. Sentences with Clauses as Subjects, 
Predicates, or Objects. 

Examples. — -Whoever plants trees, must love others 
besides himself. 



THE CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES. 173 

Politicians advocate whatever seems popular. 
Life is what we make it. 

341. Exercises. 

1. What is thoroughly understood, is easily described. 

2. That the earth is a sphere, is susceptible of 
proof. 

3. Why he resigned, is not known. 

4. The only wonder is, that one head can contain 
it all. 

5. You now see why he did not come. 

6. Whomsoever the bishop appoints, the church will 
receive. 

7. I will not object to what is reasonable. 

8. One truth is clear: whatever is, is right. 

9. The question, Can he succeed? is now discussed. 
10. He inquired by what means I succeeded. 

THE CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES. 
I. Changing the forms of elements. 

ExA]viPLES. — To express thought more definitely, a word 
may be expanded into a phrase or into a clause. 

He came early. 

He came at sunrise. 

He came as the sun ivas rising. 



174 CO^fPLETE COUESE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR, 

The energetic man succeeds. 
The man of energy succeeds. 
The man ivlio is energetic succeeds. 
Thus an element in any form may be changed into an 
element in any other form. 

343. Exercises. 

1. Write five sentences and cliange some of its modi- 
fiers into phrases or clauses. 

Model.— The brazen gates are richly carved. 

Changed: The gates of brass are carved with superb 
designs. 

2. Write five sentences and change the phrases or 
clauses into single words. 

Model. — The man kjIw is industrious^ will prosper. 

Changed: The industrious man will prosper. 

3. Write five sentences containing verbals and change 
the verbals into dependent clauses. 

Model. — In skating over ice, our safety lies in our speed. 

Changed: When you skate on thin ice, move as rapidly 
as possible. 

4. Write five sentences using compound elements and 
change one of them into a dependent clause. 

Model. — The man came and told me all about the 
accident. 



CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES. 175 

Changed: The man having come^ told me all about the 
accident. 

5. Write five sentences using clauses as modifiers, and 
change the clauses into words or phrases. 

Model. — When frosts come, the leaves fade and fall. 

Changed: The frosted leaves fade and fall. 

G. Change the form of the various elements in a 
given selection. 

344. Change italicised w^ords into phrases, and 
italicised phrases into words. 

Examples. 
The tower was long a principal residence of the Tiings. 
Changed: The tower was long a principal royal resi- 
dence. 

With eyes of thoughtful earnestness. 
Changed: With e^^es thoughtful and earnest. 

345. Exercises. 

Change the italicised tvords: 

1. Never even from tropical shores was richer-hued 

ocean beheld. 

2. She began in a very solemn manner. 

3. He has a frame of adamant and a soul of fire, 

4. I stood before the entrance to Henry the Seventh's 

chapel — great gates of brass richly carved. 



176 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

5. On what foundation stands the tuarrior's pride: 
How just his hopes let Swedish Charles decide. 

6. The sides of the mountain are covered with trees. 

7. He possessed a strong and lively imagination. 

8. His style has all the vigor and conciseness of Swift's. 

9. Dante, poor and banished^ was not a man to con- 

ciliate men. 

10. A complete and generous education fits a man to ; 
perform justly^ skillfully and magnanimously all 
the offices of peace and war. 

346. Exercises. 

Change italicised ivords and phrases: 

1. Plays were originally acted in inn-yards. 

2. We waited ivith great anxiety for the dawn. 

3. He is a citizen worthy of esteem, 

4. The pilot proceeded to the wheel in silence. 

5. He clung with still greater passionateness to two 

theories. 

6. The Friars were of necessity thrown into a position 

antagonistic to the English rule. 

7. She clung to it fiercely and tenaciously, 

8. The council met at Trent in no spirit of concilia- 

tion. 



THE CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES. 177 

9. God is in all places and at all times present with us. 

10. Will you go to that place luithout delay and give 
the man two dimes for me? 

347. Change infinitives and participles into other 
words or phrases. 

Examples. 

The end of writing is to instruct. 

Changed : The end of writing is instructive. 

348. Exercises. 

Change the italicised injinitives and participles: 

1. What cause withholds you then to mourn for him? 

2. Seeing is believing and earning is having. 

3. Too much time spent in study is sloth. 

4. I was 3^esterday much surprised to hear my old 

friend calling out to John Matthews not to dis- 
turb the congregation. 

5. His whole aim was to encouracje discussion. 

6. At this time the weather is liable to change fre- 

quently. 

7. It shows a greater genius in Shakspere to have 

drawn his Caliban than his Hotspur or Juhus 
Caesar. 

8. A greater curse cannot befall the most wicked than 

to he deprived of his peace. 



178 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

9. Being great is being misunderstood. 

10. Not to he content to satisfy is a position not to he 
desired, 

349. Change phrases into dependent clauses. 
Examples. 

Head not to contradict and confute. 
Changed: Do not read that you may contradict and 
confute. 

350. Exercises. 

Change the italicised phrases into dependent clauses: 

1. Aim constantly at hrevity, 

2. Having regained the main road^ we thought our- 

selves out of danger. 

3. I am old-fashioned enough to admire Lord Bacon. 

4. Having hecome a dissenter^ Bunyan is imprisoned 

for twelve years. 

5. Next morning, on looking for Mignon about the 

house, Wilhelm did not find her. 

6. Draicing near the city^ they had a more perfect 

view of it. 

7. In shating over thin ice^ our safety lies in speed. 

8. Before ordering the charge ^ Napoleon had carefully 

examined the ground. 



THE CONSTRUCTION OP SENTENCES. 179 

9. He dropped the man only on his ceasing to struggle. 
10. They brought to her crosses and chaplets to be 

blessed by her touch. 

351. Exercises. 

Change phrases into dependent clauses: 

1. I observed him to be much out of breath. 

2. I beheved him to be much out of breath. 

3. The council of war resolved to adjourn the attack. 

4. The noblest work to be done in Ireland was to 
bring about a reconciliation between Cathohc and Pro- 
testant. 

5. He resolved to anticipate the attack. 

6. I beheved him to be honest. 

7. Can you tell me what method to adopt? 

8. Her brother, the Earl of Murray, was recalled 
from banishment to accept the regency of the realm. 

9. Joan of Arc prays you to ivork no more distrac- 
tion in France. 

10. O God! that men should put an enemy in their 
mouths to steal away their brains ! 

352. Change dependent clauses into phrases: 
Example. 

Howard resolved that he luoidd force an engagement. 
Changed: Howard resolved to force an engagement. 



180 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

353. Exercises. 

Change the italicised clauses into j)hrases: 

1. As this proposition is admitted, I now state my 
argument. 

2. The first twenty years that Elizabeth reigned, was 
a period of suspense. 

3. The dre-am that the universcd church luoidd be 
reformed, was utterly at an end. 

4. He caught the wretch by the neck with a force 
that coidd not be resisted, 

5. The violent bounds of the wounded panther gave 
indications that its stre)igth and ferocity ivere returning, 

6. I venerate the man ichose heart is warm, ivhose 
hands are pure, 

7. Wlien he awoke, the cool gray light of dawn was 
streaking the horizon. 

8. When the troubles began, most of the people sup- 
posed themselves very loyal. 

9. Is that a swan that rides upon the waters? 
10. A loud roar of laughter from the other three ] 

workmen, made Seth look around confusedly. 

354. Exercises. 

Change into icords or phrases: 
1. Stretching myself out upon the moss in the shade, 
I waited. 



RESOLUTION AND COMBINATION OF ELEMENTS. 181 

2. Night coming down from the western peaks, 
breathed odor and coolness and heaUng balsams. 

3. The river, roaring far below, could be Teached 
by a single plunge. 

4. The fame of Washington stands apart from every 
other in history, shining with a truer luster and a more 
benignant glory. 

5. Wealth gotten by ill-means is an eternal reproach. 

6. Every goblin of ignorance did not vanish at the 
first glimmerings of the morning of science. 

7. You cannot do wrong Avithout suffering wrong. 

8. Many times Mrs. Transom went to the door steps 
watchino* and listenino; in vain. 

9. It was a low house with smooth gra}^ thatch and 
buff walls looking pleasant and mellow in the evening light. 

10. The mummies which are found in Eg^'-pt are even 
to the present time well-preserved. 

II. THE RESOLUTION AND COMBINA- 
TION OF ELEMENTS. 
355. The resolution of given sentences into detached 
statements. 

Examples. 

Given Sentence. — Ha\dng these powerful spirits obedi- 
ent to his will, Prospero could, by their means, command 
the winds and the waves of the sea. 



182 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

Kesolved into detached statements. — Prospero had 
these spirits obedient to his will. The}^ were powerful 
spirits. Prospero could command the winds. He could 
command the waves of the sea. This he could do by 
means of these spirits. 

356. Exercise. 

Besolve the following into detached statements: 

Instead of ravaging the newly found countries, like 
many of his cotemporary discoverers who were content 
only on immediate gain, Columbus regarded them with 
the eye of a legislator; he sought to colonize and culti- 
vate them, to civilize the natives, build cities, introduce 
the useful arts, subject everything to the control of law, 
order and religion, and thus to found regular and pros- 
perous empires. 

357. Exercises. 

Resolve into detached statements: 

We discern a poetical temperament in all the writings 
and in all the actions of Columbus ; in all his descrip- 
tions of the beauties of the wild land he was discov- 
ering, in the enthusiasm with which he extolled the 
blandness of the temperature, the purity of the atmos- 
phere, the fragrance of the air "full of dew and sweet- 
ness," the verdure of the forests, the grandeur of the 
mountains and the crystal purity of the running streams. 



HESOLtTTiON AND COMBINATION OF ELEMENTS. 183 

358. Exercises. 

Resolve into detached statements: 

How the magnanimous spirit of Columbus would have 
been consoled amid the afflictions of age and the cares 
of iDenury, the neglect of a fickle public and the injus- 
tice of an ungrateful Idng, could he have anticipated the 
splendid empires which would arise in the beautiful 
world he had discovered, and the nations, and the 
tongues and languages which were to fill its land with 
his renown, and to revere and bless his name to the 
latest posterity! 

359. Exercises. 

Besolve into detached statements: 

Let their last feeble and lingering glance rather behold 
the gorgeous ensign of the Republic, now known and 
honored throughout the earth, still full high advanced, its 
arms and tropliies streaming in all their original luster, not 
a stripe erased or polluted, not a single star obscui-ed — 
bearing for its motto no such miserable interrogatory as. 
What is all this worth ? nor those other words of delusion 
and folly. Liberty first and Union afterwards — but every- 
where, spread all over in characters of living light, blazing 
on all its ample folds as they float over the sea and over the 
land, and in every wind under the whole heavens, that 
other sentiment, dear to every true American heart — Lib- 
ert}^ and Union, now and forever, one and inseparable! 



184 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAJL 

360. Exercises. 

Resolve into detached statements: 

Every person must judge for himself how long a time he 
can bestow upon any single subject, or how many and 
various are the books in respect to it which it is wise to 
read ; but of this every one may be assured, that it is far 
easier, far more agreeable, and far more economical of time 
and energy, to concentrate the attention upon a single sub- 
ject at a time than to extend it to half a score, and that six 
books read in succession or together upon a single topic, 
are far more interesting and profitable than twice as many 
which treat of subjects remotely related. 

a. Simple Sentences. 

2. The combination of several statements into 
simple sentences. 

361. Exercises. 

Combine the folloiving detached statements into one simple 
sentence: 

1. The exercises had been nearly concluded. This had 
been done by the Earl of Bristol. He was a special ambas- 
sador to the court. The court was that of young Philip 
IV. who was the brother of the Infanta. The negotia- 
tions were for the marriage of Charles with the Spanish 
princess. 



1 



BESOLUTION AND COMBINATION OF ELEMENTS. 185 

2. They advanced against the champions. They ad- 
vanced together. Their spears were levelled. Their ranks 
were closed. It was a sight to make the bravest shrink, 

3. The eagle was the general of the birds. He was 
hard pressed by his enemies. His enemies were the beasts. 
He sent the bat his commands to join the army of the birds. 
The swallow carried his commands. It was in vain, 

362. Exercises. 

Combine into a simple sentence: 

1. He passed in at the central door. He slipped softly 
over the floor of mosaics. He knelt. His companion 
knelt. They knelt at the little altar of the Virgin. The 
altar was upon the left. 

2. A priest passed out of the temple gates. This he 
did ten days before the festival. He was dressed in the 
livery of a god. He bore a bunch of flowers in one 
hand. He bore a little flute of clay in the other. 

b. Complex Sentences. 
363. Exercises. 

Combine these detached statements into one complex 
sentence : 

1. Pocahontas was a beautiful Indian girl. She had 
saved the life of John Smith. She was married to a 
young Englishman. His name was John Rolfe. 



186 COMPLETE COUUSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

2. Eobert was the eldest son of the Earl of Essex. 
He was born in 1567. He was to be brought up in 
the household of Lord Burleigh, This was at the 
request of the Earl. 

364. Exercises. 

Combine into complex sentences: 

1. Prince Henry died. It was in his nineteenth 
year. It was after a short illness. It was on the 6th 
of November. It was in 1612. Prince Henry was the 
son of James I. 

2. A slave made his escape from a cruel master. 
He made his escape to a forest. Here night surprised 
him. He was forced to take refuge in a cave. 

3. The lion held out his paw. Androcles examined 
it. He found it inflamed and swollen. He looked more 
closely. A thorn had pierced the ball of the foot. 
From this the lion was suffering. 

c. Compound Sentences. 
365. Exercise. 

Combine into one compound sentence: 

1. They purchased the Speedwell. The}^ hired the 
Mayflower. The Speedwell was a vessel of forty tons. 
The Mayflower carried one-hundred and eighty tons. 

2. It was a bloody struggle. The general lost six 
thousand men. He evacuated Inspruck, This he did 



RESOLUTION AND COMBINATION OF ELEMENT. 187 

immediately. He marched out of the Tyrolese territory. 
He finally collected his army at Saltzburg. His army 
was reduced to fragments. 

3. The keepers held the wicket gate open. The peo- 
ple hastened in. They were wearied. They were covered 
with dust. Achilles followed close upon them. 

366. Exercises. 

Combine into one comjjound sentence: 

1. The}^ rode forward. They aimed a straight course 
for the Ohio river. They rode during the whole night. 
They did not stop to rest. They halted in the morning. 
It was for a short time. They traveled all that da}^ 
They traveled the following night. 

2. Aladdin wants food. The Genie has vanished. 
Straightway slaves come in. They came from some unknown 
quarter. They bring dishes. The dishes are of gold and 
silver. They are heaped up mth meats and fruits. 

3. The general struggled bravely. His object was to 
carry his men through the wasting fire. His troops sus- 
tained the unequal contest. This they did for some time. 
The head of the column began to give way. It began to 
settle heavily back upon the army below. No soldier will 
lono^ contend in such a useless strucrole. 

d. Contracted Sentences. 

Remark. — Sentences are contracted by making subor- 
dinate elements compound. 



188 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

367. Exercise. 

1. Washington determined to make no further attempt 
to hold Long Island. He embarked his troops in boats. 
He landed them in safety in New York. He did the same 
"with the military stores and artillery. All this was done 
with a prudence and ability which was consummate. During 
the time he was favored by a dense fog. 

2, Washington embarked about half his forces on the 
Delaware. This was on the evening of Christmas. He 
continued his passage through the night. His passage was 
impeded by floating ice. He struggled with snow storms. 
He landed his men at Trenton. This he did at 8 o'clock in 
the morning. He surprised the outposts of the Hessians. 
He made the main body prisoners. This he did with very 
slight loss on his own side. 

e. Abridged Sentences. 

Eemark. — Sentences are abridged by transforming 
verbs into infinitives or participles. 

368. Exercises. 

Change verb and make abridged sentences. See page 
262. 

1. Then the neat cottages were stripped of every 
article of furniture. Here hundreds of families had lived 
in comfort. They were once cheerful dwellings. Their 
doors were closed. The families were wandering about 



RESOLUTION AND COMBINATION OF ELEMENTS. 189 

the country. They were seeking relief from private 
charity. This rehef the j^arishes could not supply. 

2. Andre had crossed the river. He intended to pro- 
ceed on horseback to New York. He passed through 
the American lines. This he did safely. He was again 
on neutral ground. Here he was seized by three^ men. 
They were of the American militia. 

3. The invading band marched toward the town. 
They bore a tri-colored flag. An eagle surmounted the 
flag. Three soldiers from Boulogne had joined them. 
A young lieutenant from Boulogne had joined them. He 
was lieutenant of the 42nd and his name was Aladenise. 

4. The British troops had exclusive possession of 
Boston. They were harrassed by the activity of the 
patriots. This activity was incessant. They were har- 
rassed for a month. The patriots cut off the supplies 
from the interior. 

369. Exercises. 

Combine into one abridged sentence: 

1. Here he found the king of day. The king was 
dressed in a purple garment. It was splendid. He was 
seated on a throne. The throne sparkled all over with 
brilliant emeralds. He had a diadem upon his head. 
The diadem had bright rays. 

2. The huntsman was brave. He was flushed with 
victory. He boldly dared the stranger to appear and 



190 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

maintain his claim to the queen of the valley. The 
stranger was the one who wore the white jerkin. The 
beautiful Clothilde was the queen of the valley. 

3. The fighting went on. It became evening. Then 
the royalists had a decided advantage. They compelled 
the enemy to retire from the town. 

THE FORM AND ORDER OF WORDS. 

370. Words are in concord when they agree in per- 
son, number, gender or tense. 

371. There are nine common concords in EngUsh. 

I. The Concord of Words. 

372. A finite verb agrees with its subject in number 
and person, and the subject ((fa noun or pronoun) is 
in the nominative case. 

Examples. 
Your motives were good, but your conduct was wrong. 
If you are right, I am to blame. 

Remark. — The conjugation of verbs given shows this 
agreement fully. 

373. When the subject is a collective noun and the 
group denoted by it is spoken of as a whole, the verb 
should be singular. 

Examples. 
The army is in good condition. The club meets reg- 
ularly. The jury was divided. 



FORM AND ORDER OF WORDS. 191 

374. When the subject is a collective noun and the 
group denoted by it is spoken of individually, the 
verb should be plural. 

Examples. 
The jury were unanimous. The public are forbidden 
to tresj^ass on these premises. The congregation hold 
differing opinions. 

Remark. — Numbers, fractions and nouns naming single 
things, are singular in meaning ; as. The news is good. 
Nine-tenths of a man's happiness depends upon other 
people. Mathematics is a useful study. Six multiplied 
by five is (or makes) thirty, but six times five apples are 
thirty apples. 

I®" Note the difference between a number and a num- 
ber used as a numeral adjective, 

375. When the subject consists of two or more nouns 
or pronouns united by the conjunction and, the verb 
should be plural. 

Examples. 
David and Jonathan were close friends. 
Silence and twilight come on apace. 

Remark. — When two or more nouns united by and 
name different phases of the same object, the verb 
should be singular; as, The saint, the father and the 
christian prays ; Secresy and silence is what they chiefly 
desire ; There was pride and jealousy in his eye ; Bread 
and milk is good food for children. 



192 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

376. When nouns or pronouns are united by or or 
hut^ the verb should take the number of its nearest sub- 
ject. 

Examples. 

Neither your brother nor sisters were present ; Not the 
men but the boy is coming ; Your sisters but not your 
brother was present. 

377. When the subjects are of different persons, the 
verb should take the first person in preference to the 
second, and the second in preference to the third. 

Examples. 

John and I are coming ; Mary and you are friends. 

378. When tliis^ tJiat^ each^ every and one modify sub- 
jects, all the subject nouns and all the verbs should be 
singular. 

Examples. 
Every man, woman and child eats, drinks and sleeps ; 
' ' One thing is needful ; ' ' The book is torn ; This apple 
is large ; Each man is a factor in society. 

379. Pronouns should take the number and per- 
son of their antecedents. 

Examples. 
John cut his finger ; Mary hurt her arm ; Parents love 
their children ; Our Father which art in heaven ; He is 
a man who hopes to be great; Men who hope. 



FORM AND ORDER OP WORDS. 193 

'380. The tenses of the verbs in the various clauses of 
a complex sentence should all be either in present or 
future time, or in past time. 

Examples. 
John says that he will go to-day. 
John said that he would go to-day. 
He hid himself that he might not be impressed. 
The accident occurred while the children were playing. 

Kemark 1. — The present-indefinite tense of a verb 
should be used to express a general truths even after a 
past tense ; as, Gallileo proved that the earth moves; Our 
teacher told us that the air has weight. 

Eemark 2. — The perfect infinite should not be used 
except after a present tense ; as, He hoped to vanquish 
his enemies ; I remember to have heard the report ; He 
intended to go ; The man began to sing. 

381. Exercises. 

1. Write five sentences showing the agreement between 
the subject and a verb. 

Model. — I am here ; Thou art there ; He is yonder. 

2. Write five sentences using collective nouns denot- 
ing groups spoken of as wholes. 

Model. — That drove of horses is valuable; or, That is 
a drove of valuable horses. 

13 



194 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

3. Write five sentences using collective nouns denot- 
ing groups spoken of individually. 

Model. — The tribe are almost extinct. 

4. Write five sentences using two or more subjects 
connected by and. 

Model. — The sun and the moon are planets. 

o. Write five sentences in which subjects connected 
by and^ require a singular verb. 

Model. — Thirty days has September, 
April, June and November. 

6. Write five sentences using subjects connected by 
and^ with verbs in the first or second persons. 

Model. — You and I are friends. 

7. Write five sentences whose subjects are modified 
by tliis^ tliat^ each, every^ or one. 

Model. — Let every pupil raise his hand. 

8. Write five sentences showing how pronouns agree 
with their antecedents. 

Model. — The man who cut his hand, has lock-jaw. 

9. Write five sentences showing the sequence of tenses. ; 
Model. — When spring comes, the flowers bloom. 

10. Write five sentences showing how the present- 
indefinite tense is used. 

Model. — They reported that he drinks excessively. 



FORM AND ORDER OF WORDS. 195 

11. Write five sentences showing how infinitives are 
used after verbs. 

Model. — He ought not to do so ; He ought to have 
done otherwise. 

12. Select the verbs from a given selection and tell 
how they agree with their subjects. 

13. Select the pronouns from a given selection and tell 
how they agree with their antecedents. 

14. Point out all the concords in a given selection. 

382. Transitive verbs and prepositions require the 
objective case after them. 

Examples. 
We went with them to capture him; The people gave 
her a present ; It is strange for him to do so ; Who 
do men say that I am ? Whom did you tell to do it ? 

Remark. — The subject of the infinitive is in the objec- 
tive case ; as, She told Mm to do it. The infinitive in this 
case is called the final object and expresses an action of 
or on its subject; as, I saw him fall; I have bread to 
eat. If the infinitive is used as the subject of a prin- 
cipal clause (see next chapter) and has a personal sub- 
ject, it takes for before this subject; as. For me to live 
is Christ. 

383. The subject of a participle is in the possessive 
case. 



196 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

Examples. 
John's advising me to accept the offer, was unex- 
pected ; I do not know the reason of Ms being away ; 
There is no harm in a womari's advocating women's 
rights ; Taking a madman's sword to prevent Jiis injur- 
ing himself is not theft. 

384. The verb to he has tlie same case after it as 
before it. 

Examples. 
I am he ; It is she ; John is a man ; We know it to 
be her ; It is we that are standing. 

385. The possessive case denotes ownership, origin, 
or fitness, and may be used as a predicate or as the 
object of a preposition. 

Examples. 

Gay hope is theirs; Ye are Christ's; This is an anec- 
dote of Frankhn's; I bought it at Barr's. 

386. Exercises. 

1. Write five sentences using me, us^ tJiee^ Mni^ lier^ 
them and lohom. 

Model. — He told them the story. 

2. Write five sentences using the objective case as 
the subject of a verbal. 

Model. — We saw them approaching us. 



FORM AND ORDER OF WORDS. 197 

3. Write five sentences using the objective case after 
for as the subject of an infinitive. 

Model. — It is impossible for me to go. 

4. Write five sentences using tlie possessive as the 
subject of the verbal in ing. 

Model. - — I do not object to my son's marrying. 

5. Write five sentences using nouns or pronouns after 
copulative verbs. 

Model. — It is I. 

6. Write five sentences using possessives as predicates. 
Model. — That watch is yours. 

7. Write five sentences using possessives absolutely 
after prepositions. 

Model. — I am stopping at Barnum's. 

8. Point out the objective nouns and pronouns in a 
given selection. 

9. Point out the possessive nouns or pronouns in a 
given selection. 

II. The Order of Words. 
387. The subject precedes the verb. 

Examples. 

Time flies. Trees grow. Rivers flow. 



198 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

Remark. — When the sentence begins with an adverb, 
the subject follows the predicate; as, There is a way; 
Then followed a great noise. 

388. The transitive verb precedes its object. 

Examples. 
They rowed our boat ; The man crossed the river. 

Remark. — In poetry and for emphasis, the object 
sometimes precedes the subject and the predicate ; as, 
Him ye trusted but me ye rejected ; What none has 
dared, thou hast accomplished; Him the Almighty Power 
hurled headlong. 

389. The adjective precedes the noun. 

Examples. 
Good boys. Fine fruit. Interesting books. 

Remark 1. — The adjective is often placed after the noun 
when there is a qualifying phrase ; as, He is a teacher in all 
respects competent. 

Remark 2. — The article must be repeated when the 
noun modified by it denotes different objects ; as, A red 
and a white flag Qivo flags) ; A red and white flag (one 
flag). 

Remark 3. — Every pronoun should have a distinct 
antecedent or subsequent. 



THE SYNTAX OF WORDS. 199 

Examples. 
The boy tore his book ; This is the tree which grew 
on the hill ; J^Hiose dog is this ? It is John's, Whom 
shall I send ? Send him. 

390. The adverb usually follows the verb. 

Examples . 
He writes plainly; Bring the doctor quickly. 

Kemark. — - Only and not modify the word or phrase 
immediately after them ; as, The cherries are 7iot quite 
ripe ; He calls only on Sundays ; He does not wish to 
punish but only to warn. 

391. Requirements. 
Correct the following sentences and give reasons for 
the corrections made : 

1. The news of fearful disasters have arrived. 

2. Ashes was scattered among the plants. 

3. The bellows belongs to the smith. 

4. His clothes hang loosely about him. 

5. The scissors is on the table. 

6. The odds offered seem great. 

7. Billiards occupy too much of his attention. 

8. No tidings of the steamer has yet been received. 

9. Ethics are the science of human duty. 



200 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

THE SYNTAX OF WORDS. 

392. Syntax investigates the relations of words and 
teaches what forms should be used in given relations. 

393. Parsing is a statement of the class, inflection, 
properties and relation of a word, together with a state- 
ment of the rule. 

394. There are six classes of sj^ntactie relations, viz: 
I. The relation of subject and verb. 



II. 


The objective relations. 


III. 


The limiting relations. 


IV. 


The complemental relations. 


Y. 


The conjunctive relations. 


VI. 


The participial relations. 




395. The subject and the verb. 




Examples. 


1. 


I write. 4. We write. 7. You and I write. 


2. 


Thou writest. 5. You write. 8. He and you write 


3. 


He writes. 6. They write. 9. She or I write. 



From an inspection of these sentences it appears (1) 
that the subject is in the nominative case, and (2) that 
the verb takes the number and person of its subject ; but 
(3) when two or more subjects are connected by coord- 
inate conjunctions the verb may be singular or plural. 



i 



THE SYNTAX OF WORDS. 201 

Hence — 

Rule I. — A noun or a pronoun used as subject 
takes the nominative form. 

Rule II. — 1. A verb takes the number and person 
of its subject; but (2) If there are two or more dis- 
tinct subjects connected by and^ the verb takes the 
plural form; or (3) If there are two or more sub- 
jects connected by or^ nor, or but^ the verb takes 
the number of the subject nearest to it. 

396. Models of Parsing. 

Thou writest. Thou is a personal pronoun, declined: 
Singular, nominative thou, possessive tliy or thine, objec- 
tive thee; plural, nominative you or ye, possessive your 
or yours, objective you ; of the second person, singular 
number, common gender: it is used as the subject of the 
verb writest and is therefore in the nominative case, accord- 
ing to Rule I : A noun or a pronoun used as subject takes 
the nominative form. 

Writest is a transitive verb used intransitively ; prin- 
cipal PARTS, present ivrite, past wrote, past participle, 
written: it is of the active voice, indicative mode, present 
tense and solemn form : and is of the second person, sin- 
gular number to agree with thou, according to Eule II: 
I, The verb takes the 'number and person of its subject. 



202 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAP 

397. Exercise. 

Parse the subjects and verbs in the foUoiving sentences, 
ivriting out the parsiiig carefully: 

1. I sleep. 0. You smile. 9. Clara has danced. 

2. James walks. 6. They wink. 10. Birds had flown. 

3. Thou risest. 7. Henry sleeps. 11. Eagles will soar. 

4. Mary sits, 8. We shall go. 12. I may go. 

398. Exercise. 

Correct the form of the subjects and verbs in the folloio- 
ing sentences, giving reasons for the corrections made: 

1. Me walks. 5. Potatoes grows. 

2. You was here. 6. There was two men. 

3. We was left. 7. Boys is naughty. 

4. Lion's roars. 8. Him and me went. 

399. Exercise. 

Parse the subjects and verbs in the following sentences: 

1. My oldest son designed a beautiful house. 

2. Your brother should have drawn a prize. 

3. These boys should have been more prompt. 

4. You must study more diligently. 

5. We could plainly mark the heaving mass. 

6. They looked like floating fairy tales. 

7. The man who is really an artist in making works 
of art, does not seek his own pleasure. 



THE SYNTAX OF WORDS. 203 

8. The one thing above all others that makes a man 
an artist is that he loves his make-believe for its own sake. 

9. Where we now sit, the rank thistle nodded in the 
wind and the wild fox dug his hole unscared. 

10. All that a boy needs is room in which to play and 
companions wdth whom to play, and he is as happy as a 
king. 

400. Exercise. 
Parse the subjects and verbs: 

1. It was summer and I was attending school. 

2. The seats were hard, the lessons were dry, and the 
walls of the school-room w^ere cheerless. 

3. An indulgent, sweet-faced girl was my teacher ; 
and I presume she felt the irksomeness of the confinement 
quite as severely as I did. 

4. The weather was delio:htful and the birds were sing- 
ing everywhere. 

5. The thought came to me that if I could only stay 
out of doors and lie down in the shadows cast by the 
trees, I would get my lesson. 

401. Exercise. 

Parse the verbs having compound subjects^ applying 
Rule II, 2 or 3. 

1. Neither he nor I am sick, 

2. Georo;e and his brother are absent. 



204 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

3. His meat was locusts and wild honey. 

4. One day the poor woman and her idiot boy were 
missed from the market-place. 

5. Neither the captain nor sailors were saved. 

6. They and I shall go together. 

7. Either the boys or the man is responsible. 

8. Neither your friends nor you should go. 

9. She and I are fast friends. 

10. Thou and thy sons with thee shall bear the ini- 
quity of your priesthood. 

402. Exercises. 

Parse the subjects and verbs in the following imper" 
atlve sentences : 

1. God bless our native land. 

2. Long live our country's fame. 

3. A father's blessing rest upon thee. 

4. Suffice it to say. 

5. Woe worth the chase! Woe worth the day! 

6. My soul turn from them — turn me to survey. 

7. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Rep- 
resentatives. 

8. Euin seize thee, ruthless king! 
Confusion on thy banners wait. 



I 



THE SYNTAX OF WORDS. 205 

9. Fall he that must beneath his rival's arms, 
And live the rest secure from future harms. 

10. Be my tongue mute, m}^ fancy paint no more, 
And, dead to joy, forget my heart to beat. 

403. Rule II. — 4. When two or more nouns express 
a collective or complemental idea and are connected by 
and^ the verb is singular. 

404. Exercises. 

Parse the verbs in the folloioiug sentences : 

1. Flesh and blood hath not revealed it unto thee. 

2. The saint, the father and the husband 2:)rays. 

3. Thirty days hath September, April, June, and No- 
vember. 

4. Not enjo3niient and not sorrow is our destined end 
or way. 

5. All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy. 

6. A portion of his time, five or six hours a day, was 
devoted to study. 

7. War, peace, darts, rivers, everything in short, is 
alive in Homer. 

8. The force and direction of personal satire is no 
longer understood. 

9. Industry and temperance goes hand in hand. 



206 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 



10. These changes in the meanings of words, this ebb 
and flow of significance, is constantly going on. 

11. This metaphor and metamorphoses of words is 
curious. 

405. Exercises. 

Correct the verbs in the folloicing sentences: 

1. The three-fourths of the bridge were built of iron. 

2. The w^hole style and manner of the orator were 
such as to attract all and offend none. 

3. There were much rain and loud thunder. 

4. Such generosity and self-denial were never heard of 
before. 

5. Four-fifths of the surface consist of rocks. 

6. There are plenty of good words which was never in 
a dictionary. 

7. A part of our exports consist of cotton. 

8. Part of our exports consists of cotton. 

9. A part of the crops were injured. 

10. Are there not decision and principle and patriot- 
ism in our public men sufficient to meet such cases? 

11. OBJECTIVE RELATIONS. 

406. Transitive verbs express acts which pass over 
from an agent to an object. In the sentence, John strikes 



THE SYNTAX OF WORDS. 207 

George^ the verb struck expresses an act which passes 
over from the doer John to George^ the object affected 
by the act of striking. George is called the passive 
object. In the sentence, Birds build nests ^ the verb build 
expresses the act by which the nests are produced. 
Nests is called the object of effect. In the sentence, TJie 
man saw the bear^ the verb saw expresses the act by 
which the bear is known. Bear is called the object of 
cognition. And in the sentence, He struck a blow^ the 
verb struck and the object bloio are identical, and hence 
bloio is called the object of kindred meaning. In all these 
cases, however, the act passes directly from an agent to 
an object, and George^ nests, bear and bloiv are called 
direct objects, 

407. The Direct Object of an Act. 
Rule III. — A noun or a pronoun used to denote 
the direct object of an act, is in the objective case. 

408. Model of Parsing. 

Example. — Birds build nests. 

Nests is a common noun, declined, singular, nominative 
nest, possessive nesfs, objective nest; plural, nominative 
nests, possessive nests', objective nests; of the third per- 
son, plural number and neuter gender: it is used as the 
direct object of the verb build, and is therefore in the 
objective case, according to Rule III: A noun or a prO' 
noun used to denote the direct object of an act, is in the 
objective case. 



208 COMPLETE COUESE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

409. Exercises. 

Write out the parsing of some of the objects of the foU 
lowing sentences and parse the others orally: 

1. Boys fly kites. 6. John wrote letters. 

2. Beavers build dams. 7. Men wear shoes. 

3. Girls love dolls. 8. Boys sell papers. 

4. Mary sings songs. 9. He ran a race. 

5. Squirrels gather nuts. 10. I saw a planet. 

Remark. — The analysis and parsing of sentences may 
be shown by writing the number of the Eule over the 
word and the symbol denoting the element beneath it. 
Thus: 

12 3 

Boys fly kites. 
= o 

410. Exercises. 

Parse all the objects in the folloiving ; also^ the subjects 
and verbs: 

1. "How happy," exclaimed this child of air, 
"Are the holy spirits who wander there, 

'Mid flowers that never shall fade or fall! 
Tho' mine are the gardens of earth and sea, 
And the stars themselves have flowers for me, 
One blossom of heaven outblooms them all." 

2. "Blood like this. 
For liberty shed, so holy is. 

It would not stain the purest rill. 

That sparkles among the bowers of bliss. 
O if there be on this earthly sphere, 
A boon, an offering Heaven holds dear, 
'Tis the last libation Liberty draws 
From the heart that bleeds and breaks in her cause !" 



THE SYNTAX OF WORDS. 209 

411. Exercises. 

Correct the folloiving sentences : 

1. Who did you invite? 

2. W^ho shall he send? 

3. Let him send you and I. 

4. Who shall I put in such a place as this? 

5. Tell me who you mean. 

6. Let thou and I the battle tiy. 

7. Him you should punish ; not I who am innocent. 

8. Her and me are coming to-morrow. 

9. Are him and you friends? 
10. Whom say ye that I am? 

412. The Object of a Preposition. 

Prepositions show the relation of an object to some act, 
state, or other object. 

Examples. 

1. The hunting-land of his tribe was changed. 

2. No light canoe now shot down the river. 

3. A mingled expression of grief passed over his face. 

Of shows the relation of the object tribe to the object 
hunting 'land, Doivn shows the relation of the object river 
to the act expressed by shot. Of shows the relation of 
the object grief to the object expression. Over shows the 
relation of the object face to the act expressed hj passed. 

14 



210 COMPLETE COUKSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

Hence — 

Rule IV. — A preposition connects its object to 
the word to which the object is related. 

Rule V. — The object of a preposition is in the 
objective case. 

413. Models of Parsing. 

Example. — The place of her retreat ivas described to 
her on her ivay to it. 

Of is a preposition and shows the relation of its object 
retreat to the object place, which words it connects, accord- 
ing to Rule IV: A preposition connects its object to the 
word to ivhich the object is related. 

Retreat is a common noun, declined, singular, nomina- 
tive retreat, possessive retreat's, objective retreat; plural, 
nominative retreats, possessive retreats', objective retreats; 
of the third person, singular number, neuter gender ; it 
is used as the object of the preposition of, and is there- 
fore in the objective case, according to Rule Y: The 
object of a preposition is in the objective case. 

414. Exercises. 

Parse the prepositions and their objects: 

1. I never was a man of feeble courage. 

2. I have stood in the front of the battle, 

3. Swords were circling round me like fiery serpents 
in the air. 



THE SYNTAX OF WORDS. 211 

4. Many years have gone by on the wings of light 
and shadow. 

5. The object of their mirth was tossing on a bed of 
sickness. 

6. The jail in which he had been imprisoned stood at 
some distance from Pekin. 

7. He watched a loaded boat in its passage across the 
stream. 

8. He looked upon the fair scene with a troubled gaze. 

9. We ran to the dark spot in the center of the mass. 

10. He fell dead at the feet of the white woman by a 
blow of the tomahawk. 

415. Use of Particular Prepositions. 

At, after, against, between, by, for, from, in, to, 
into, on, upon, of, over, to, and with following cer- 
tain words, viz: 

At follows angry^ disgusted^ glad^ and loud. 

After follows eager^ (for), hanker^ and long. 

Against follows guards militate^ object^ offend^ prejudice^ 
provide. 

Between follows intermediate and intervene. 

By follows overwhelmed (with), profit^ followed. 



212 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

For follows capacity^ eager (sitter)^ fondness^ long (for), 
martyr^ necessary (to), occasion^ provide (against), sym- 
patJiy. 

From follows abhorrent (to), derogate^ ^^W^^^i diminish^ 
discourage^ dissent^ in distinction^ exclude^ extracted^ for- 
eign (to), /ree, omitted^ preserve^ refrain^ release^ relieve 
(of), subtract^ siverve, 

Remark. — In^ into^ on^ and upon are related; in and 
on denote rest ; — into and upon^ motion. 

In follows confide^ deficient^ difficulty^ eager (for, after), 
embark (for), incorporate (into, with), invested (with), 
involve^ in or loitli regard to, in or luith respect to. 

On follows dependent, entrance, (upon, into), founded 
(upon), influence (over, with), rely (upon). 

Into follows entrance (on, upon), incorporate (with, 
in), inroad, penetrate. 

Upon follows enter and entrance (on, into), founded, 
rely (on). 

Over follows influence (with, on), preference (to, above). 

Of follows abhorrence, accuse, brag, cured, diminution, 
enamored (with), exclusive, fond, glad, independent, 
lame, made, mistrustfid, need, neglectfid, productive^ pur- 
suance, relieve (from), rid, strip, iveary, ivorthy. 

To follows abhorrent, access, adapted, adequate, agree- 
able, aspire, conformable, congenicd, contiguous, derog- 



THE SYNTAX OF WORDS. 213 

atory^ destined^ discouragement^ disparagement^ exception 
(from, against), foreign (from), inaccessible^ incentive^ 
indulgent^ inured^ join (with), marry, necessary (for), 
object (against), offensive^ pecidiar^ pertinent^ pleasant^ 
preferable^ preference^ j^rejicdicial^ profitable^ pursuant^ 
relation, resemblance^ similar. 

With follows accord (to), comply^ conformable (to), 
congenial (to), consonant^ disgusted (at), enamored (of), 
incorporate (in, into), invested (in), join (to), levels 
intermarry^ meddle^ mingle^ overivhelmed (by), pZeasecZ, 
provide (for, against), replete^ sympathize^ unison, 

416. Exercises. 

Form sentences iising the predicates given above. If 
any of these predicates are followed by two or more prep^ 
ositions, make sentences shoiving the proper use of each. 

417. Exercises. 
Parse the p)repositions : 

1. Be kind to your friends. 

2. John is inexperienced in business. 

3. William is hke his brother. 

4. The house is near the mountain. 

5. Be mindful of his favors. 

6. He is older than his brother. 

7. Orgetorix was the richest of the Helvetians. 



214 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

8. Henry is weary of business. 

9. James is fond of apples. 

10. The entertainment was fit for a prince. 

Remark. — Some regard ^ like and near as prepositions. 
Than connects He and brother. All superlatives are also 
followed by prepositions. The preposition shows the 
relation of its object to these predicates, because they 
express the state or disposition of the subject. 

418. Exercises. 
Correct by substituting the proper j^'^eposition : 

1. He was conversant in many languages. 

2. His acts are inconsistent to his profession. 

3. The offer is agreeable with my views. 

4. He is congenial with his friends. 

5. His house is contiguous with the road. 

6. I have little influence with him. 

7. Pass in the room. 

8. Few men can rise beyond prejudice. 

9. You are engaged with a great work. 
10. Divide the money among the two men. 

419. The Indirect Object. 
Eemark. — Some verbs are followed by two objects one 
of which denotes the object to or for which anything is 
done ; as, He gave me a dollar; or, He gave a dollar 



THE SYNTAX OF WORDS. 215 

to me. This remote object (me) is called the indirect 
object^ and usually follows such verbs as ask^ bring^ buy, 
carry, deny, do, draw, find, get, give, lend, leave, make, 
order, pass, X)lay, present, promise, provide, refuse, sellj 
send, sing, sJioiu, teach, tell, tliroio and lurite. 

Examples. 

John gave an apple to George ; or, John gave George 
an apple. The shoemaker made a pair of boots for him ; 
or, The shoemaker made him a pair of boots. The traveler 
told a wonderful story to me ; or, The traveler told me 
a wonderful storj^ 

From these examples it will be seen that, if the indirect 
object precedes the direct object, it does not require a 
preposition to be placed before it. 

Hence — 

Rule VI. — When the indirect object precedes the 
direct object, it is in the objective case without a 
preposition. 

420. Model of Parsing. 

Example. — She gave him it. 

Him is a personal pronoun; declined, singular, nom- 
inative he, possessive his, objective him y- plural, nominative 
they, ipossesiye their, objective them; of the third person, 
singular number, masculine gender; it is used as the 
indirect object and is in the objective case without a 



216 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

preposition, according to Rule VI; Wlien the indirect 
object precedes the direct object^ it is in the objective case 
without a preposition, 

421. Exercises. 

Parse the direct and the indirect objects: 

1. John asked him a question. 

2. It takes thy cash and pays thee naught, 

3. He told her his wretchedness. 

4. I should have given him my cloak. 

5. We pay great respect to taste and beauty, but 
very little to womanhood. 

6. O what brightness it gives to life! 

7. What adornment it gives to Christianity! 

9. He was obliged to give his sentiment utterance. 

9. They sold me a horse for fifty dollars. 

10. Come and trip it, as we go, 
On the light fantastic toe. 

When the verb takes the passive form either object 
may become the subject. When the indirect object 
becomes the subject, the direct object remains in the 
objective case; as. He taught me grammar; or, I was 
taught grammar. He promised me a shilling ; or, A 
shilling was promised me. 



*rHE SYNTAX OF WORDS. 217 

422. Exercises. 
Change the verbs in the following sentences into the 
passive form : 

1. He refused me an audience. 

2. Make Charlie a pair of shoes. 

3. They presented him a watch. 

4. She sang us a song. 

o. I would sell 3^ou the book for a dollar. 

6. Please get me a drink. 

7. Ask James for the glass. 

8. They threw a rope to the man overboard. 

9. Did he promise you his assistance? 

10. She played many selections for the company. 

III. THE LIMITING RELATIONS. 

423. Possessives. 

The form of a noun is changed to make it express 
oivnership, origin^ or fitness. 

Examples. 

John's book is torn. The sun's rays are penetrating. 
Men's shoes are manufactured here. 

Remark. — The form of the noun which ends in 's, s', 
or ' simply, is called the possessive case. 



218 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

Rule for forming the possessive case. 

Suffix 's to all nouns whether singular or plural, except 
to common nouns ending in the sound of s and to proper 
nouns ending in the sound of eez ez urz^ in which case 
the s is suppressed and the apostrope (') is retained. 

Rule VII. — A noun or a pronoun placed before a 
noun to express ownership, origin or fitness, takes 
the possessive form. 

424. Model of Parsing. 
Example. — He sells hoys' dotJiing, 

Boys' is a common noun; declined, singular, nominative 
boy^ possessive boy's, objective boy; plural, nominative 
boys, possessive boys', objective boys; it is of the third 
person, plural number, masculine gender ; it shows the 
fitness of clothing and therefore takes the possessive form, 
according to Rule VII. : A noun or a pronoun placed before 
a noun to express oivnership, origin or fitness, takes the 
jjossessive form, . 

425. Exercises. 

Parse the possessives: 

1. My neighbor's bees have left their hive. 

2. They brought John the Baptist's head in a charger. 

3. I have read William Henry Harrison's message. 

4. He sold his son-in-law's farm. 



THE SYNTAX OF WORDS. 219 

5. They described the Duke of Wellmgton's achieve- 
ments. 

6. The ruler of the synagogue's daughter was raised. 

7. She returned after a day or two's absence. 

8. Bring me Walker's, Webster's and Worcester's 
dictionaries. 

9. Who surveyed Mason and Dixon's line? 

10. And the Poet's song again 

Passed like music through my brain, 
Night interpreted to me 
All its grace and mystery. 

11. The soul, of origin divine, 

God's glorious image freed from clay, 
In heaven's eternal sphere shall shine 
A star of day. 

12. Evan's, Donald's fame, 
Rings in each clansman's ears. 

13. Day set on Norham's castled steep. 
And Tweed's fair river broad and deep, 
And Cheviot's mountain lone. 

426. Nouns and pronouns in the. possessive case are 
used without nouns in three cases, viz : 

1. As predicates ; as, Ye are ChrisVs; This book is 
mine, 

2. After prepositions; as, I stopped at Banc's; This 
is a story of Siuiffs. 

3. As subjects of abridged propositions; as, I heard 
of John's coming. [Participial Relations §525.] 



220 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 



427. Exercises. 

Parse the possessives : 

1. Gay hope is ours. 

2. This is an ancedote of Franklin's. 

3. I'll thump that head of 3^ours. 

4. He desired no one's favor so much as the King's 

Majesty's. 

5. I shall stop at the doctor's. 

6. Such hand as Marmion's had not spared 
To cleave the Douglas' head. 

7. The boy's coat was badly torn. 

8. The Thirty Years' War ended in 1648. 

9. He bought a watch at Jaccard's. 

10. This is a story of Lincoln's. 

11. Bury the Great Duke 

With a nation's lamentations. 

428. Exercises. 

Parse the possessives: 

1. He was held at arm's length. 

2. That sketch was drawn by a painter's hand. 

3. American independence was gained by a seven year's 

war. 

4. A ten miles' ride was taken before breakfast 

5. A lion's roar was heard in the forest. 



THE SYNTAX OF WORDS. 221 

6. The child's arm was crushed. 

7. Twenty pound's weight was added to each cap- 

tive's burden. 

8. The cattle are feeding on the hill's gentle slope. 

Remark. — In the first sentence, arm's denotes the 
measure of the length. 

In sentence 3, years' denotes measure of lime, and 
seven tells liow many such measures are required to 
measure the length of the war. 

In sentence 4, miles' denotes measure of distance, 
and ten shows how many such measures are required to 
measure the length of the ride. 

In sentence 7, pounds' denotes measure of weight, 
and twenty tells how many such measures are required 
to equal weight of the burden. 

429. Appositives. 
When two or more objects bear the same name, a noun 
is placed after the name to distinguish the objects. 

Examples. 
Springfield, Mass. ; Springfield, Illinois. 
Webster, the statesman ; Webster, the lexicographer. 
John Adams; John Smith. 
Louis IX. ; Louis XIV. 

430. An Appositive is a noun that shows wliich per- 
son, place or thing is meant. 

431. As the noun in apposition represents the same 
object as the apposed noun, it has the same grammatical 
properties and relations. 

Hence — 

Rule VIII. — The noun in apposition agrees with 
the noun or pronoun to which it is apposed. 



222 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

432. Model of Parsing. 
Example. — Macaulay the historian is an eloquent ivriter. 

Historian is a common noun, declined, singular, nom- 
inative historian^ possessive historian's^ objective 
historian ; plural, nominative historians^ posses- 
sive historians^ objective historians ; it is of the 
third person, singular number and masculine 
gender; it is apposed to Macaulay and is there- 
fore in the nominative case, according to Rule 
YIII: The nonn in apposition agrees luith the 
noun or pronoun to which it is apposed, 

433. Exercise. 
Parse the appositives: 

1. We the people do ordain this constitution. 

2. His mind overawed majesty itself. 

0. Time, Time the tomb-builder, holds his fierce 
career, dark, stern, all pitiless. 

4. What constitutes a State? 

Not high-raised battlements or labored mound, 

Thick wall or moated gate ; 
Not cities proud, with spires and turrets crowned ; 

Not bays and broad-armed ports. 
Where, laughing at the storm, rich navies ride ; 

Not starred and spangled courts. 
Where low-browed baseness wafts perfume to pride ; 

No! Men, high-minded men, 

Men who their duties know 
But know their rights, and knowing dare maintain. 



THE SYNTAX OF WORDS. 223 

5. The spirits of the seasons seem to stand, 
Young Spring, bright Summer, Autumn's solemn 

form, 
And Winter with his aged locks. 

6. Uttered not, yet comprehended. 

Is the spirit's voiceless pra^^er ; 

Soft rebukes, with blessings ended, 

Breathing from her lips of air. 

434. Exercises. 

Fill the blanks loitli appositives: 

1. George . . . . reigned sixty years. 

2. Paul .... was a great missionary. 

3. Alexander ..... was ambitious. 

4. Napoleon . . . was captured at Sedan. 

5. Tennyson . . . wrote "Enoch Arden." 

6. The word . . .is the name of a bird. 

7. Alfred . . founded Oxford University. 

8. The ship ..... was wrecked. 

9. William . . defeated Harold, - - » 
10. Milton . . . . . . was blind. 

Eemakk. — A noun is sometimes in apposition to a sen- 
tence ; as. He offered to assist me — a favor which I highly 
appreciated. Sometimes a word expressing a part agrees 
with a word expressing the whole; as. They fled; some^ 
one way; others^ another; but each man to his own tent. 



224 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

435. The Adjective. 

Adjectives are words joined to nouns to point out or 
describe persons or things. 

Adjectives are always joined to the nouns naming the 
object they point out or describe and generally precede 
these names. 

Hence — 

Rule IX. — An adjective is joined to the noun 
denoting the object it points out or describes. 

436. Models of Parsing. 
Example. — This quiet sail is as a noiseless icing. 

This is a limiting adjective, not compared, and is used 
to point out sail, to which it is joined, according to Rule 
IX: An adjective is joined to the noun denoting the object 
it points out or describes. 

Quiet is a descriptive adjective, compared, positive, 
quiet ^ comparative more quiet, superlative most quiet; it 
is of the positive degree and is joined to sa^7, according 
to Eule IX. 

437. Exercises. 

Parse the adjectives: 

1. The highest officer commanded the last squadron. 

2. The first man was killed near the next hill. 



THE SYNTAX OF WORDS. 225 

3. There were seven men and five boys in the canoe. 

4. This little twig bore three large red apples. 

5. Clear, placid Leman, thy contrasted lake, 

With the wide world I dwell in, is a thing 

Which warns me, with its stillness, to forsake 

Earth's troubled waters for a purer spring. 

6. This quiet sail is as a noiseless wing 

To waft me from distraction; once I loved 
Torn ocean's roar, but thy soft murmuring 
Sounds sweet, as if a sister's voice reproved, 
That I with stern delight should e'er have been so 
moved. 

7. How sweet the hour of Sabbath talk, 

The vale with peace and sunshine full, 
Where all the happy people walk, 

Decked in their homespun flax and wool. 
Where youth's gay hats with blossoms bloom; 

And every maid with simple art. 

Wears on her breast, like her own heart, 
A bud whose depths are all perfume ; 

While every garment's gentle stir 

Is breathing rose and lavender. 

438. Use of the articles a or an, or the. 

1. The form an is used before words beginning with 
a, e, i, or o, or silent h, or before an unaccented sylla- 
ble beginning with h. 

Examples. 

A hero; an heroic action. A horizontal line; an hori- 
zon. An acorn, an eagle, an inkstand, an ox, an honest 
man. 

15 



226 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

2. Articles are repeated before nouns and adjectives 
referring to different objects. 

Examples. 
A red and white flag, meaning one flag, 
A red and a white flag, meaning tivo flags. 
The wise and good man, meaning one man. 
The wise and the good man, meaning tiuo men. 

3. The article the is used to point out definite objects, 
objects in contrast, or to make a singular noun denote a 
class of objects. 

Examples. 

The men are robust, but the women are delicate. 

The Mill on the Floss. The Elephant. 

The verb sings. The noun boys. 

439. Exercises. 

Correct the use of the articles in the following expres- 
sions and sentences: 

1. Use the gargle every half an hour. 

2. What sort of a word is this? 

3. Read a half a line. 

4. The deer was a half a mile off. 

5. The gilded and the hollow pretext is prominent. 

6. The mules and the horses are useful animals. 



THE SYNTAX OF WORDS. 227 

7. Providence is the semi-cajDitol of Rhode Island. 

8. Every student must furnish their own room. 

9. The subject of the finite verb is in the nominative 

case. 

10. The relative pronouns partake of the nature of the 
conjunction. 

440. Uses of Demonstratives and Numerals. 

1. The one — the other; one — the other ; neither^ either^ 
both^ tvhichever or whichsoever^ are used when two objects 
are spoken of. 

Examples. 

Two men went up to the temple to pray ; the one, a 
pharisee ; the other, a publican. One man furnishes the 
capital and the other carries on the business. Either of 
the two ; neither of the two ; both of the two ; whichever 
of the two. 

2. One — another; some — other; none^ ivhatever or 
ivhatsoever^ and not are used when three or more objects 
are spoken of. 

Examples. 

Some men do one thing ; other men, another thing. 
Take one of the five apples, but none of the three 
peaches. You can have any one of the ten books you 
want. It was not James, or Charles or Henry. 



228 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

3. Ordinal numbers show the order in which single 
things or groups of things are taken and must precede 
Cardinal numbers. 

Examples. 

The first line; the last stanza; the first two lines; the 
last three stanzas. 

441. Exercises. 

Correct the use of the adjectives in the foUoiving sen- 
tences : 

1. Neither of the six men were identified. 

2. Either of the four boys can write well. 

3. James is the oldest and largest of m}^ two boys. 

4. One end of this log is as thick as another. 

5. Bring a fresh pitcher of water. 

6. Divide them nuts between the four boys. 

7. James and Charles love one another. 

8. The three last mails brought me no letters. 

9. Choose the least of the two evils. 
10. I never heard a more truer saying. 

442. The Adverb. 

Adverbs express place^ time, cause, manner or degree, 
and are joined to verbs, adjectives or" other adverbs to 
limit them. 



THE SYNTAX OF WORDS. 229 

Examples. 

1. Place: Come hither, hither, pretty fly. 

2. Time: Mary started early this morning. 

3. Cause: He told me why he did it. 

4. Manner: The army fought bravel}^ and skillfully. 

5. Degree: It is so cold that I am almost frozen. 

Hence — 

Rule X. — An adverb is joined to the verb, adjective 
or other adverb which it limits. 

443. Model of Parsing. 

Example. — Now lies he tJiere, 

And none so poor to do him reverence. 

Now is an adverb of time, not compared, and limits 
the verb lies^ to which it is joined according to 
Rule X: An adverb is joined to the verb, ad- 
jective or other adverb which it limits. 

So is an adverb of degree, not compared, and limits 
the adjective poor^ to which it is joined, accord- 
ing to Rule X. (Repeat Rule X.) 

444. Exercises, 

Parse the adverbs: 

1. It went against me to work ever after. 

2. Let me tell exactly how it happened. 



230 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

3. He rode all unarmed, and he rode all alone. 

4. He will go elsewhere to-morrow. 

5. I know not whither he went or whence he came. 

6. He called twice two days beforehand. 

7. The boat sped rapidly onward. 

8. The clouds move quite slowly. 

9. The boatmen rowed briskly and sang merrily. 
10. The hall was brilliantly illuminated. 

445. The Noun of Quantity. 

Nouns are used adverbially to express the following 
relations : 

1. Time how long: He remained two years. 

2. Time ^Arhen: I arrived this morning. 

3. Price: Wheat is a dollar a bushel. 

4. Weight : He weighed two hundred pounds. 

5. Measure: The field contains ten acres. 

6. Distance: He rode ten miles. 

7. Quantity: She talked a great deal. 

8. Manner: She walked a queen. 

9. Place or direction: He went home- — north. 
Hence — 

Rule XI. — A noun used to express adverbial rela- 
tions is in the objective case. 



THE SYNTAX OP WORDS. 231 

446. Model of Parsing. 

Example. — The street is jive miles long. 

Miles is a common noun ; declined, singular nomina- 
tive mile^ possessive mile's^ objective mile; 
PLURAL, nominative miles^ possessive miles\ ob- 
jective miles; of the third person, plural num- 
ber, neuter gender; it is used to express dis- 
tance, and is in the objective case, according 
to Rule XI: A noun used to express adverbial 
relations is in the objective case, 

447. Exercises. 

Parse the nouns used adverbially : 

1. He walked a good round pace. 

2. It is not worth while to consider it now. 

3. The man was about thirty paces off. 

4. John fell a victim to strong drink. 

5. The gentle Sidney lived the shepherd's friend. 

6. Minerva's temple stood a landmark to mariners. 

7. The man is head and heart in love. 

8. James walks dandy fashion. 

9. I do not care a fig. 

10. The longer I live the wiser I grow. 

11. The curfew tolls the knell of parting day; 

The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea; 
The plowman homeward plods his weary way, 
And leaves the world to darkness and to me. 



232 COMPLETE COUBSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

448. Participials. 

Infinitives and participles are used adverbially to 
express — 

1. Concomitant action: Her voice came ringing on 

the air. 

2. Extent, purpose or consequence : I was forced 

to beg my bread ; He went to see his friend ; 
Read so as to be heard ; The general sent a body 
of cavalry to reconnoitre the enemy's position; 
Who gave that boj^ my slate to break ? 

3. Respect wherein : I am ready to go ; He is 

anxious to learn; It is time for the committee 
to rise. 
Hence — 

Rule Xlli — A participial used adverbially depends 
upon the noun, verb or adjective which it limits. 

449. Model of Parsing. 
Kxample. — John has a desire to learn. 

To learn is the present-active infinitive of the verb to 
learn; principal parts, present learn, past 
learned, past participle, learned; it is used to 
limit the noun desire, upon which it depends, 
according to Rule XII : A participial used adver- 
hicdly depends upon the noun, verb or adjective 
which it limits. 



THE SYNTAX OP WORDS. 233 

450. Exercises. 

Parse the participials : 

1. He has a desire to learn and a wish to excel. 

2. She has a heart to pity and a hand to help. 

3. I have bread to eat 3^e know not of. 

4. Who gave 3^ou my slate to scratch? 

5. The enemy was seen approaching us. 

6. He came to town riding backwards. 

7. My friend is nearly ready to go. 

8. They returned rejoicing and praising God. 

9. He was thought to be not only a scholar but also 
a wit. 

10. Rich tints o^leam alono; the eastern clouds like 
watch-fires burning in the dawn. 

451. Limitations Expressed by Inflection and 
Auxiliaries. 

a. Past Time. 
Past time is expressed by changing the form of the 
verb, viz: 

a. About 130 verbs (See Exercises 271-279) express 
past time by changing the vowels of the verb; as, hear^ 
hove; lead^ led; huy^ bought . 

b. The greater number of verbs however express past 
time by annexing ed or t; as, learn ^ learned; divellj 
dwelt; add^ added. 



234 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

c. The auxiliary did is also used to express past 
time; as, I did write; I did mark Jww he did shake. 

Eemark. — Do aud did are frequently used to make 
statements more emphatic, — and thus express manner or 
degree. 

b. Future Time. 

Future time is expressed through the auxiliaries shall 

and icilL Shall is used in the first person, and will in 

the second and the third persons. (See Conjugation, 
pp. 123-124.) 

452. Condition and Manner Expressed through 
Auxiliaries. 

The Complete Condition of an act or state. — Some 
form of the auxiliary Ttave is used to express the complete 
stage of an act or state, (See Perfect Tenses, p. 126.) 

The Manner in which being, action or state is 
thought. — The manner in which being, action or state 
is thought, is expressed through the various forms of the 
auxiliaries may^ can^ must, let, and shall and icilL 

Can expresses the capabihty of its subject ; may, the 
capability of some object other than its subject. 

Must expresses being, action or state as necessary. 

Let, as an auxiliary, forms the first and third persons 
of the imperative mode ; as, Let there he light = Light he. 



THE SYNTAX OF WORDS. 235 

Shall expresses the determination of the speaker; icill^ 
the determination of the subject. Shall in the 
first person, and icill in the second and third 
persons foretell. Will in the first person and 
shall in the second and third persons, express 
a command^ a irromise^ or a threat, 

453. Exercises. 

Tell in luhat manner the auxiliaries are used in the 
following sentences : 

1. Where the amber-drops for thee shall weep. 
And the rose-lipped shell its music keep, 
There thou shalt slumber well. 

2. I had as lief not be, as live to be 
In awe of such a thing as I myself. 

3. Let me die the death of the righteous! 

4. Let your light shine before men. 

o. You must study, if you would improve. 

6. If it should snow to-morrow, I could not come. 

7. The cock shall not crow, until thou hast denied 
me thrice. 

8. It may rain and then I cannot go. 

9. I could paint the smile upon his face! 

10. Let me die; what else remains for me? 
Youth, hope and love: 
To build a new life on a ruined life ; 
To make the future fairer than the past; 
And make the past appear a troubled dream. 



236 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

IV. COMPLEMENTAL RELATIONS. 

454. The complemental relations include those con- 
structions in which a noun, a pronoun or an adjective 
is used to complete the meaning of a copulative verb. 

Examples. 

Horses are animals. John is a man. It is /. I am 
he. Snow is ivliite. They called his name John, Paint 
the house red, 

Kemark. — Sentences having a predicate joined to a 
subject by means of a copula are called i^ropositions. In 
sentences in which the verb is in the passive voice or has 
the progressive form, the participle may be treated as a 
predicate; as. The house is built; Trees are groioing ; The 
hoy ivas grown. 

455. A noun or pronoun used as a predicate. 

As the predicate noun or pronoun is in the same rela- 
tion and denotes the same object named by another 
word, it has the same number, gender and case. 

Hence — 

Rule XIII.— A predicate noun or pronoun agrees 
with the noun or pronoun denoting the same object. 

456. Model of Parsing. 
Example. — Tennyson is a poet. 



THE SYNTAX OF WORDS. 237 

Poet is a common noun of the third person ; declined, 
SINGULAR, nominative i^oet^ possessive poeVs^ 
objective poet; plural, nominative poets^ pos- 
sessive poets\ objective poefs; it is of the 
singular number, mascuhne gender and nomin- 
ative case, to agree with Tennyson^ according to 
Eule XIII : A predicate noun or pronoun agrees 
with the noun or pronoun denoting the same 
object. 

457. Exercises. 
Parse the predicate nouns or pronouns: 

1. Talent is something, but tact is everything. 

2. It is the open eye, the quick ear, the judging 
taste, the keen smell, and the livel}^ touch. 

3. It is the interpreter of all riddles, the surmounter 
of all difficulties, the remover of all obstacles. 

4. Talent is power, tact is skill ; talent is weight, 
tact is momentum ; talent knows what to do, tact knows 
how to do it. 

5. This is the caliph's glorious armament. 

6. The poor shoemaker became the learned statesman. 

7. How can a private citizen become a public officer? 

8. John is the brother of Henry and Lucy. 

9. Ericsson was the originator of iron war-ships. 

10. The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom. 



238 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

458. An adjective or participle used as a predicate. 

As the predicate adjective shows some essential trait or 
some act, state or condition of the object to which it 
refers, it is joined through the copula to the noun or 
pronoun denoting this object. Hence — 

Rule XIV : A predicate adjective or participle is 
joined through the copula to the name of the object to 
which it refers. 

459. Model of Parsing. 

Example. ■ — Peaches are delicious. 

Delicious is a descriptive adjective ; compared, positive 
delicious^ comparative more delicious^ superla- 
tivef most delicious; of tlie positive degree ; it is 
used as predicate and belongs to peaches^ accord- 
ing to Rule XIV: A predicate adjective or 
^oarticiple is joined through the copicla to the 
name of the object to which it refers, 

460. Exercises. 

Parse the predicate adjectives or participles: 

1. The apples are not quite ripe. 

2. Blackberries are green when they are red. 

3. Every good student is diligent. 

4. The book is intensely interesting. 

5. Snow is white and the rose is red. 



THE SYNTAX OF WORDS, 239 

6. Lambs are gentle but kittens are frolicsome. 

7. Boys are robust but girls are delicate. 

8. The fly's four thousand eyes are tiny. 

9. The dove's beautiful wing was broken. 

10. Kind hearts are the gardens, 
Kind thoughts are the roots, 
Kind words are the blossoms, 
Kind deeds are the fruits. 

11. The sternest men are often the kindest fathers. 

461. The predicate consists of a transitive verb 
and a noun. 

Some verbs express acts which pass over from an agent 
to an object, and at the same time, change the object 
into something else. Thus, a private citizen becomes a 
public officer through the suffrages of his fellow citizens, 
and we say, The people elected Lincoln president. The 
following verbs sometimes require a noun or adjective 
to complete their meaning, viz: apj)ointj call^ cJioose, 
color^ consider^ constitute^ create^ dye, elect, esteem^ make^ 
name, paint, reckon, regard, style and think, 

462. Model of Parsing. 
Example. — They made him chairman. 

Chairman is of the singular number, masculine gender, 
and objective case, to agree with /im, according to Rule 
XIII, (Repeat Rule XIII.) 



240 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

463. Exercises. 

Parse the predicate nouns: 

1. They appointed him chairman. 

2. Do you call your daughter Mary? 

3. The people made Henry king. 

4. The president appoints his friends officers. 
0. His enemies called him a coward. 

6. The borough elected him a member of parliament. 

7. The Constitution makes Congress the law-making 
power. 

8. He became a man while he seemed a boy. 

9. The Romans made Cicero, the great orator, Consul. 
10. They styled Douglas the Little Giant. 

464. The predicate consists of a verb and an 
adjective. 

Verbs expressing semblance^ tendency or effort are com- 
pleted by adjectives, participles, or infinitives. 

When things change from one condition to another, or 
seem to be in a certain state, the state or condition is 
expressed by an adjective which completes and defines 
the imperfect condition expressed by the verb, as in the 
sentence, She only looked more meek and fair^ in which 
meek and fair complete and define the imperfect state 



THE SYNTAX OF WORDS. 241 

expressed by looked. Verbs like try^ begin^ desire^ seem, 
which express effort, require an iiifinitice to complete 
and define their meaning ; as, He began to study. 
Hence — 

Rule XV. — A verb expressing semblance, effort or 
tendency is completed by an adjective, participle 
or infinitive. 

465. Exercises. 

Parse the loredicate adjectives: 

1. Pitt made a venal age unanimous. 

2. We painted our windows brown. 

3. Leave the lily white and tinge the violet blue. 

4. My divinity makes my miseries eternal. 

5. Her friends considered her beautiful. 

6. They do not regard beauty necessary. 

7. She will make her household happy. 

8. He was considered learned and eloquent. 

9. The lady dyed her shawl scarlet. 

10. The people did not think him honest. 

466. Exercises. 
Parse the complemental adjectives: 

1. The hills grow old. 

2. The family have fallen sick, 

16 



242 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

3. The inau's face became crimson. 

4. The small boy became a large man. 

5. The old man appeared sad. 

6. The fields look fresh and green. 

7. William seemed angry. 

8. The thief turned pale. 

d. And all the air seemed strangely sweet. 
10. Fair seemed the old, but fairer still the new. 

467. Exercises. 

Parse the infinitives: 

1. He tried to outstrip his competitors. 

2. The man undertook to do too much. 

3. The army began to retreat in good order. 

4. Many men have attempted to invent self-moving 

machines. 

5. Asa began to talk in a strange language. 

6. The stranger seemed to be looking for some one. 

7. The children wanted to ride in the boat. 

8. The girl commenced to stud}' French. 

9. Good teachers desire to instruct thoroughly. 
10. The prisoner endeavored to escape. 

Hemaek 1. — The present-dsfinitive and the present- 



THE SYNTAX OF WORDS. 



PARTICIPLE are used after such verbs as am, begin ^ com- 
mand ^ consent^ commence^ desire^ design^ endeavor^ exxject^ 
Jiate, liope^ intend^ mean^ offer^ propose^ seek^ try^ vmnt^ 
wish. 

Remark 2. — The perfect infinitive is used after verbs 
when they relate to past time ; as, / ought to have gone ; 
/ remember to have seen him, 

468. Exercises. 
Parse the infinitives: 

1. I recollect having seen him. 

2. He seemed to have lost all hope. 

3. Pitt declared Walpole to have been an excellent min- 

ister. 

4. Remember to call on your return. 

5. He appeared to have died from poison. 

6. I intended to write yesterday. 

7. He purposed going yesterday. 

8. She offered to take my son with her. 

9. The man seemed to have been drinking. 
10. They designed surprising the enemy. 

469. Exercises. 

Parse the adjectives: 

1. Misfortunes never come single. 

2. The weather continues stormy. 



244 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

3. A good deed shall not go unrewarded. 

4. The expedition proved disastrous. 

5. How clear the bell rings! 

6. Honey tastes very sweet. 

7. The sailors remained idle and grew insubordinate. 

8. The house stood empty month after month, 

9. The moon shines bright. 

10. In vain the spicy breezes 

Blow soft o'er Ceylon's isle. 

470. Exercises. 
Correct the following sentences : 

1. He turned round quick. 

2. Gold rings differently from tin. 

3. Every thing looked favorably for our arms. 

4. The stone feels smoothly. 

5. My pen writes good. 

6. I intended to have written to you. 

7. I have some recollection of seeing him. 

8. He appeared to die from poison. 

9. He purposed to have gone yesterday. 

V. CONJUNCTIVE RELATIONS, 
a. Coordinate GonjunctioHS. 
471. Coordinate conjunctions are words used to join 
the parts of compound elements and sentences. 



THE SYNTAX OP WORDS. 245 

a. The copulative conjunction and connects like words, 
sentences or parts of sentences. 

Examples. 
John and Mary study arithmetic and grammar. 
The wise and good man spoke eloquently and forcibly. 
James went to Boston and New York to study music 
and painting. 

The sagacity of Newton led him to his great discovery, 
and he now stands at the head of philosophers. 

b. The adversative conjunctions, hut^ however^ yet^ still, 
notwithstanding and nevertheless^ connect elements or 
sentences which are contrasted. 

Examples. 
Talent is complimented but tact is rewarded. 
The daj^ is fine, notwithstanding it is hot. 

c. The alternative conjunctions, or and nor^ connect 
elements or sentences of which one or all are excluded. 

Examples. 
He will come to-day or to-morrow. 
The young lady neither sings nor plays. 
The man may either read or write. 

Remakk 1. — Either and neither are adjective pronouns 
used as correlatives to or and nor. 



246 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

d. Than is used to connect words representing unequal 
things. 

Examples. 

The man is more than fort}' years old. 
I have more than I knoTv what to do Tdth. 
John is much stronger than Wilham. 
A lion is ?jraver than a sheep. 

472. Since coordinate conjunctions connect the same 
parts of speech, and phrases and clauses in the same 
relation. AVe infer — 

Rule XVI. Coordinate conjunctions connect sen- 
tences of the same rank and words or phrases having 
a common relation. 

473. Exercises. 

Pa rs e the c nj u n c t lo n s : 

1. And the stateh^ ships go on, 

To the haven under the hill ; 
But oh, for the touch of a vanished hand, 
And the sound of a voice that is still! 

2. Stoop, angels, hither from the skies! 

There is no holier spot of ground 
Than where defeated valor lies, 
B}' moui'ning beauty crowned. 

3. Da}' has put on his jacket, and around 
His burning bosom buttoned it with stars. 

4. There was racino: and chasing: on Canobie Lea, 
But the lost bride of Xetherby ne'er did they see. 



THE SYNTAX OF WORDS. 247 

5. The broken soldier, kindly bade to stay, 
Sat by his fire, and talked the night away, 
Wept o'er his wounds, or, tales of sorrow done, 
Shouldered his crutch and showed how fields were 

won. 

6. While her cheek was bright with summer bloom, 
Her country summoned and she gave her all. 

7. For other aims his heart had learned to prize, 
More bent to raise the wretched, than to rise. 

8. Oh, come ye in peace here, or come ye in war. 
Or to dance at our bridal, young lord Lochinvar. 

b. Subordinate Connectives. 
Subordinate connectives are words used to introduce 
subordinate clauses and to connect them to some word 
in the principal clause. 

Subordinate connectives embrace three classes of words, 
viz: 

1. Subordinate conjunctions are words used to intro- 
duce clauses and to connect them to the word which 
the clause limits. 

Remark. — That^ whether; though^ although^ ivhatever; 
if^ unless^ except; that^ lest^ in order that; as, because^ 
for, sincey then, therefore, and whereas, are the subordin- 
ate conjunctions. 

2. Conjunctive adverbs which are words that have 
the double office (1) of connecting the clause of which 
they form a part to the word which the clause modifies 
and (2) of limiting some word in their own clause. 



248 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

Hemark. — WJiere^ ivherevei^ lohether, ivhitlier soever^ 
whence; as, when, ivhenever, before, ere, after, while, 
whilst, since, till, until; as, that, than, and the— the, are 
conjunctive adverbs. 

3. Relative pronouns, words which have the triple 
office (1) of connecting the clause of which they form a 
part to some antecedent word or words denoting the 
same object, (2) of agreeing in person, number and 
gender with the antecedent word or words, and (3) of 
being an element of the limiting sentence. 

Remark. — Who^ ivhich, that, and as are relative pro- 
nouns. But who and what with ever and soever appended 
sometimes, and as, are used without antecedents. 

474. There are three kinds of subordinate clauses, viz: 

I. Substantive clauses, 

II. Adverbial clauses, and — 

III. Relative clauses. 

I. Substantive clauses are introduced by that or 
whether, or by a compound relative pronoun, and are 
used in any one of the four relations of subject, predi- 
cate, object, or appositive. 

Remark. — Any one of the four kinds of sentences, p. 
152, may become a substantive clause. When direct dis- 
course is changed to indirect discourse, the interrogative 
word is not a connective. 



THE SYNTAX OF WORDS. 249 

Thus: 

Direct: What book are you reading? 

Indirect: He inquired what book I was reading. 

Direct : Who are you ? 

Indirect: He asked who I was. 

Examples. 

a. That he is wise, is admitted. 
WJiy he resigned, is not known. 

b. Life is what we make it. 

The only wonder is, that one head can contain so 
much, 

c. You know why he did not come. 

I will accept whomever you appoint. 

He inquired whether I could come. 

He does not object to what is reasonable. 

d. The question, Can he succeed? is pertinent. 
One truth is clear, whatever is, is right. 

475. Exercises. 
Parse the substantive clauses: 

1. Do you understand what I say? 

2. I shall accept what you give. 

3. What is well understood, is easily described. 

4. They asked us whether we were going? 

5. Who steals my purse, steals trash. 
G. The man spoke as follows. 



250 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

7. They inquired why he did not come. 

8. Whoever plants trees, loves others. 

9. The teacher says that the air has weight. 

10. Whatever is rung on that noisy bell, 
Chimes of the hour or funeral knell, 
The dove in the belfry must hear it well. 

476. Adverbial clauses are introduced (a) by subor- 

dinate conjunctions, or (b) by conjunctive ad- 
verbs, — and limit some verh^ adjective^ or other 
adverb, 

a. The adverbial clauses introduced by subordina*te 
conjunctions are — 

1. Conditional and concessive clauses, 

2. Final clauses, and — 

3. Causal clauses. 

477. A Conditional clause expresses what is requisite 
that something else may take effect. 

478: A Concessive clause expresses what is yielded 
but in spite of which something else results. 

Examples. 
I shall go, even if it rains. If I have not charity, 
even though I give my body to be burned, I am nothing. 
Man is vile, though the spicy breezes blow soft and every 
prospect pleases. 

The conjunctions introducing these clauses are ?J, unless^ 
except^ though^ although^ and sometimes luhatever. 



THE SYNTAX OF WORDS. 251 

Modes used in sentences containing conditional 
or concessive clauses. 

479. The indicative mode is used when the condition 
is reaZ, or when the mind reverts to the consequence of 
the condition or concession. 

Examples. 

I shall come, if it does not rain. I shall go, although 
it is raining. 

J|®"The indicative is used in both clauses. 

480. The subjunctive mode is used in the conditional 
or concessive clause, when it expresses contingency only. 

Examples. 

Unless I be by Sylvia in the night, there is no music 
in the nightingale. Although I be by Sylvia in the 
night, there is no music in the nightingale. 

481. The subjunctive or potential mode, ])ast tense^ is 
used in both clauses to express mere assumption in 
present time. 

Examples. 

Were he to say so, he would misrepresent the facts. 
Should he go now, he would incur danger. 

*'I had as lief not be, as live to be 
In awe of sucli a thing as I myself." 



252 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

482. The subjunctive or potential mode past-perfect 
tense is used in both clauses to express mere assumption 
in past time. 

Examples. 

Hadst thou been here, my brother had not died. Had 
he said so, he would have misrepresented the facts. 

Remark. — In sentences of this kind, one of the clauses 
is often omitted; as. Would that I had not gone! 

483. A Final clause expresses the end^ aim^ motive 
or purpose with which an act is done, and is introduced 
by that or lest. 

Examples. 
Ye will not come unto me that ye may have life. 
Take heed lest 3"e fall. 

484. After verbs of advising^ commanding or striving^ 
the infinitive is used to express purpose. 

Examples. 
He told me to go. Bid him come. Try to do it. 

485. A Causal clause expresses a ground^ a reason^ 
an inference^ or a conclusion^ and is introduced by as, 
because^ for^ since ^ then, therefore, or ivhereas. 

Examples. 
As I live, I tell the truth. I must hasten, because it 
is late. Be diligent, for time is precious. Since one 



THE SYNTAX OF WORDS. 253 

apple costs four cents, eight apples will cost eight times 
four cents, or thirty-two cents. If it is a relative pro- 
noun, then it agrees with some antecedent. John is a 
name: therefore it is a noun. Whereas, it has pleased, 
etc., therefore. (Used in preambles.) 

486. Rule XVII. — A subordinate conjunction 
joins the clause of which it forms a part to the word 
which the clause modifies. 

487. Model of Parsing. 
Example. — / shall send you the hook that you may 
examine it. 

That is a subordinate conjunction used to introduce 
the final clause that you may examine it^ which 
it joins to shall send^ according to Rule XVII. 
(Repeat Rule XVII.) 

488. Exercises. 

Parse the subordinate conjunctions in the following 
sentences : 

1. If this is treason, make the most of it. 

2. Though he was rich, yet he became poor. 

3. Beware lest the enemy deceive you. 

4. He visited the springs that he might improve his 
health. 

5. Since the soil has been enriched, the corn will 
grow. 



254 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. . 

6. I have brought you this passage that you may 
explain it. 

7. If he had received the letter, he would have 
answered it. 

8. He said that you sent him for it. 

9. They inquired whether the air has weight. 

10. The barrel weighed three hundred pounds and 
therefore he could not lift it. 

489. The subordinate clauses introduced by conjunctive 

adverbs are — 

1. Local clauses, 

2. Temporal clauses, and — 

3. Modal clauses. 

490. Local clauses express the three relations of pos^- 
tion^ direction and origin and are introducted by the 
conjunctive adverbs where ^ wherever^ ivhither ^whithersoever^ 
and whence, ' 

Examples. 

I shall go whithersoever you direct. Your heart will 
be where your treasure is. This is the ocean whence 
come the fruitful showers. 

491. Temporal clauses express the three relations of a 
pointy a period^ or frequency of time, and are introduced 



THE SYNTAX OF WORDS. 255 

by as, when, iclienever, before, ere, after, ivhile, whilst, 
since, till, and luitil. 

Examples. 

I saw him as I came. He remained while I staid. 

The man did not leave until he had accomplished his 
object. 

Cromwell followed small events before he went to 
govern great ones. 

492. Modal clauses express correspondence, conse- 
quence or degree, and are introduced by as, that, than 
and the — the. 

Examples. 

Do as you are directed. Read so that you may be 
heard. The more I use the book, the better I like it. 
The coat cost much less than you suppose. 

RE3IAEK. — Certain words which stand in contrast to 
conjunctions, or modify conjunctive adverbs, usually called 
correlatives, are either pronouns or adverbs: Both, less, 
more, either, and neither are adjective pronouns. Also, 
forasmuch, inasmuch, indeed, just, likewise, now, then^ 
not, only and so are intensive adverbs. 

I@^ These words need no special treatment. 

493. Rule XVIII. — A Conjunctive Adverb joins 
its clause to some word in the principal clause 
and limits some word in its own clause. 



256 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

494. Model of Parsing. 
Example.— TFe sJiould grow better ivJiile we live. 
Wliile is a conjunctive adverb of time joining its 
clause to the verb grow and limiting the verb 
live^ according to Rule XVIII ; A conjunctive 
adverb joins its clause to some word in the prin- 
cipal clause and limits some word in its own 
clause, 

495. Exercise. 

Parse the conjunctive adverbs in the following sentences : 

1. When you have nothing to say, say nothing. 

2. The age of miracles is past while that of prejudice 
remains. 

3. Our lesson is the same as that we had yesterday. 

4. The robber struck him such a blow that he fell. 

5. The science of mathematics performs more than 
it promises. 

6. The more an avaricious man has, the more he 
wants. 

7. Just as the twig was bent, the tree inclined. 

8. I have more than I know what to do with. 

9. Moses built the tabernacle as he was commanded. 

10. "While the mass is cooling now, 
Let the labor yield to leisure, 
As the bird upon the bough, 

Loose the travail to the pleasure. 
When the soft stars awaken 
Each task be forsaken," 



THE SYNTAX OF WORDS. 257 

496. Relative clauses are subordinate clauses which 
describe or restrict the word in the principal clause 
which denotes the same object. 

The word in the principal clause denoting the same 
object as the relative pronoun, is called its antecedent. 

Examples. 
The pupil ivJio applies himself, will improve. He was 
the first boy that saw it. He withheld the reward which 
he had promised. He has such principles as every good 
man should covet. 

497. Eelative pronouns are used as follows, viz; 
Who represents persons. 

Wliich represents the inferior animals, children and 
things. 

That is sometimes used to prevent a too frequent 
repetition of ivho or ivhich^ and should be used for 
these — 

1. When the antecedent denotes both persons and 

things, or — 

2. When the antecedent is modified by very^ same, 

no^ not, all, any, each, every, some, or a super- 
lative, or — 

3. When some word does not intervene between it 

and an antecedent i^ronoun. 
Kemark. — As is a relative pronoun when its antece- 
dent is modified by such. 
17, 



258 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

Examples. 

1. The man and the dog that you saw, are lost. 

2. The same man that you saw said that this was 
the very thing that he wanted. It is not grief that 
makes me mourn. 

3. Fall he that must. His praise is lost who waits 
till all commend. 

498. Rule XIX. A relative pronoun joins its clause 
to the antecedent, with which it agrees in person, 
number and gender. 

Remark. — The case of a relative pronoun depends upon 
its use in its oivn clause. 

499. Model of Parsing. 

Example. — He did not know the man to ivhom he 
gave it. 

Whom is a relative pronoun, declined singular and 
plural, nominative who, possessive whose, objective 
whom ; it is of the third person, singular num- 
ber, masculine gender, to agree with its antece- 
dent onan^ to which it connects its clause, 
according to Kule XIX: A relative pronoun 
joins its clause to the antecedent^ ivith tvhich it 
agrees in person^ number and gender. It is the 
object of the preposition to^ and is in the object- 
ive case, according to Rule V. (Repeat Rule V.) 



THE SYNTAX OF WORDS. 259 

500. Exercises. 

Parse the relative pronouns in the following sentences: 

1. He has such friends as any one may be proud of 
having, 

2. The earth is the planet on which we live. 

3. Mark but my fall and that that ruined me. 

4. He that studies English literature without the 
lights of classical learning, loses half the charm of its 
sentiment and style. 

5. The reward which was promised, shall be given. 

6. The globe on which we live, is in constant motion. 

7. They are the same persons that assisted us yester- 
day. 

8. He told us about the ship and passengers that 
were lost at sea. 

9. A lady in speaking of the word that said: That 
that that that that gentleman parsed was not that that 
that that lady had requested him to parse. 

10. I'll prove the word that I've made my theme 
Is that that may be doubled without blame; 
And that that that thus trebled I may use 
And that that that that critics may abuse 
May be correct. Further — the dons to bother — 
Five thats ma}^ closely follow one another; 
For, be it known, that we may safely write 
Or say that that that that that that followed 
Through six repeats the grammar's rule allows; 
And that that that (that that that that began) 
Repeated seven times is right! deny't who can. 



260 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

SENTENCES CONSTRUCTED FROM GIVEN 
CONJUNCTIVE WORDS. 

501. Exercise. 

Construct sentences using the coordinate conjunctions 
aiid, hut^ or^ nor and than. 

Remark. — Sliow the use of such correlative words as 
hotli^ also^ either^ neither, 

502. Exercise. 

Construct sentences using substantive clauses introduced 
by that^ whether^ ivhoever^ ivhatever^ what and as. 

503. Exercise. 

Construct sentences using each of the four forms of 
sentences as elements in each of the four relations of 
subject, predicate, object or appositive, 

504. Exercise. 

Construct sentences using the subordinate conjunctions 
if, unless, except; though, although, whatever; that, lest; 
as, because, for, since, then, therefore, ivhereas, 

505. Exercise. 

Construct sentences using the conjunctive adverbs 
where, ivherever, ivhither, whithersoever and whence. 



THE SYNTAX OF WORDS. 261 

506. Exercise. 

Construct sentences using the conjunctive adverbs 
lohen^ whenever^ before^ ere^ after, while, whilst, since, 
till, until, 

507. Exercise. 

Construct sentences using the conjunctive adverb as, 
that, than, the — the. 

508. Exercise. 

Construct sentences using the relative pronouns who, 
whose, ivhom, tohich, that and as. 

509. Exercise. 

Construct sentences using the phrases at ivhich, on 
w'hich, ivith ivhich, for which, by luhich, upon ivhich, 
through which, from which. 

510. Exercise. 

Construct sentences using the phrases by whom, on 
whom, with whom, through whom, in whom, from whom, 
for whom. 

VI. PARTICIPIAL RELATIONS. 

511. A Participial is a verb under the form of an 
infinitive or participle. 

512. The infinitive is the form of the verb with to 
before it. 



262 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GEAMMAR. 

Examples. 
Present: to write to be writing to be written. 

Perfect : to have written to have been to have been 

[writing [written. 

Remark. — After the active voice of behold^ hid^ dare^ 
(to venture), c?o, feel^ find^ have^ hear^ help, let, make, 
need^ please^ see, the to is generally omitted. 

513. The participle is the form of the verb ending in 
ing, ed, t, n or en. 

Examples. 
Present: writing (being) written. 

Perfect: having written having been written. 

514. The participle is frequently used like an adjec- 
tive to express the purpose of the object whose name it 
modifies. 

Examples. 

A laboring day = a day for laboring. 

A writing desk = a desk on which to write. 

A church-going bell = a bell to summon to church. 

515. Participials have four uses, viz: 

1. They complete the meaning of verbs expressing 
semblance, tendency or effort. 

Examples. 
The child seems to thrive. The book grows interesting. 
The man tries to skate. 



THE SYNTAX OF WORDS. 263 

516. They are used as nouns but are modified like verbs. 

a. Digging potatoes is hard work. 
Seeing clearly is believing hrmlj^ 

b. Time to come is called future. 

c. To love makes not to love again. 

True -knowledge consists in knowing things well. 

d. I saw the men approaching us. 
He had heard Jenny Lind sing. 
I have bread to eat. 

There is much to say. 

Remark. — In (d) the participial expresses an act of 
or on the object named by its subject and is usually 
parsed as v^ fined object. 

517. The}^ are used as adverbs to express — 

a. Purpose ; as, He icent to see the shoiv, 

b. Respect wherein; as, He teas ready to die. 

c. Concomitant action; as, J/e came flying. He went 

riding hacktvards. 

518. Participials are used to abridge clauses, and 
depend upon the word which the clause limits. 

Examples. 

I had no relation (ivho tvas) living. Truth, (tvhich is) 
crushed to earth, shall rise again. 

Remark. — When infinitives and participles are not used 
as nouns, adjectives or adverbs, their general use is to 



264 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

abridge dependent clauses, in which case the connective, 
subject and auxiliary are omitted or changed. 

THE CONTRACTION AND ABRIDGMENT 
OF SENTENCES. 

519. A sentence is contracted when common elements 
are omitted, and a conjunction supplied. 

Examples. 

He is a rich man. "1 f . 

TT • 1 He IS a rich, p-ood [and 1 

He IS a ffood man. > < - ' & l j 

TT • • II pious man. 

He is a pious man. J .(^^ 

She writes letters. ^ f 01 -4 1 ij. 1 ^.i 

rn 1 .1 . She writes letters, plays the 

She plays the piano. > < . ^ .-, i 1 

,^, ^ •^-j \ I I piano land I reads novels. 

She reads novels. J [ ^ l j 

A huntsman shoots ducks. "| f -^ huntsman shoots 

A huntsman shoots quail. V < ducks, quail [and] 
A huntsman shoots deer. J (^deer. 

520. A sentence is abridged when some of its ele- 
ments are omitted and the form of others is changed. 

Examples. 
He ordered that he should ^o = him to go; They went 
that he might see the s7io?r = to see the show; Truth, 
although it may he crushed to earthy shall rise again = 
crushed to earth; I saw him f all = -zc/ie^i he fell ; Because 
the door ivas left open^ the horse was stolen=:the door being 
left open ; After I had ivritten a letter^ I took a walk = 
having written a letter ; Because her husband did not return^ 
the wife concluded that he was dead = Her husband not 
returning ; I have bread which I am to eat = to eat. 



THE SYNTAX OF WORDS. 265 

ABRIDGMENT OF RELATIVE CLAUSES. 

521. When the verbal refers to some object in the 
principal clause, it abridges a relative clause. 

Examples. 

A soldier, wounded by a saber, was left to die. 
He is a man interested in every thing. 

522. Adjectives expressing an external relation or 
resemblance, and nouns and adjectives expressing a men- 
tal operation, are modified by phrases, but refer to 
some object in the principal clause; as. He fell near this 
tree; A wolf is like a dog; The horse is worth $1000; 
He is intent on business or pleasure ; His craving for 
food is intense. 

Remark 1. — To is omitted after iiear^ like and ivorth. 

Re^iark 2. — Such nouns as desire^ ivish., liist^ appe- 
tency ^ craving^ inclination^ eagerness^ aspiration^ longing^ 
and aivare are modified by phrases showing the object of 
the feeling; as, a desire for food; a longing for companion- 
ship) ; the lusts of the flesh. 

Remark 3. — Sometimes the same idea is expressed by 
a verb, a noun, or an adjective ; as. He desires to go = 
He has a desire to go = He is desirous of going. 

Remark 4. — Near^ 'nigh, close, adjacent, proximate, 
contiguous, present, ready, intimate, familiar, dear, con- 



266 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

versayit, and their synonyms are limited by phrases ; as, 
He drew not nigh unheard ; The house is contiguous to 
the barn. 

ABRIDGMENT OF ADVERBIAL CLAUSES. 

523. Participles in the absolute construction are used 
instead of causal and temporal clauses. 

Examples. 
Having finished my task, I departed = After I had fin- 
ished] The door being left open, the horse was stolen ==: 
Because the door was left open. 

524. Exercises. 

1. Point out the contractions in a given extract and 
suppl}' the omitted words. 

2. Write five sentences modified by relative clauses 
and show how they may be abridged. 

Model. — The tree ivhich grew in the garden, was blown 
down = pfrowino;. 

3. Write five sentences modified by causal clauses and 
show how they may be abridged. 

Model. — He will not come because he was not invited 
sooner = Not being imited in time, he will not come. 

4. Write five sentences modified by temporal clauses 
and show how the dependent clause may be abridged. 



l^HE SYNTAX OP WORDB. 267 



Model. — After the winter was over, he became con- 
valescent = The winter being over, he became convales- 
cent. 

5. Write five sentences containing nouns or adjectives 
expressing a mental operation. 

Model. — The general was aware of the enemy's designs. 

CLAUSES WITH SUBJECTS. 

525. When objective clauses are abridged, if denoting a 
different object, the subject of an infinitive is in the objec- 
tive case, and the subject of a participle is in the loosses- 
sive case. 

Examples. 

He told them to go; I heard of his coming :=ihsit he 
had come ; I remember having seen him ; I was not aware 
of offending 3'Ou. 

I know not what to do (what I should do). 

I believe him to be honest (that he is honest). 

He was possessed beyond the Muse's painting = (what 
the Muse could paint). 

I was not aware of his being a minister = that he is 
a minister. 

There is a volcano slumbering unt)er you =:: (which is 
slumbering under you). 



268 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

The man was so elated as to forget to answer = that 

he did not answer). 
A YOUTH BEING THEIR leader( = Since a 3'outh is their 

leader) what can they do ? 

The door being open = (because the door was open), 
the thief escaped. 

The general sent a regiment to reconnoitre the 
enemy's position = that they should reconnoitre 
the enemy's position. 

He told him to do it = (that he should do it. 

Rule XX. — In abridged clauses, participials depend 
upon the word naming the object of which they 
express some act or state. 

526. Models of Parsing. 
Example. — They fled, pursued by our cavalry. 

Pursued is a transitive verb, principal parts, present 
jntrsue, past pursued^ past participle, jpitrsued; 
it is the present passive participle and depends 
upon tliey^ according to Rule XX: (Repeat 
Rule XX. 

527. Rule XXI. — After a preposition or verbs of 
preventing, the subject of a participle is in the pos- 
sessive case. 

Examples. 

There is no harm in a woman's knowing all about her 
rights. 



THE SYNTAX OF WORDS. 



528. Model of Parsing. 
Woman's is a common noun, declined, singular, nom- 
inative woman y possessive woman's, objective ivoman ; 
jjlural, nominative women ^ possessive women' s^ objective 
icomen ; it is of the third person, singular number, femi- 
nine gender ; it is used as the subject of the participle 
knoiving, and is in the possessive case, according to Rule 
XXI. (Repeat Rule XXI.) 

529. Exercises. 

Parse the participials in the folloioing sentences: 

1. She was pleased to see me knitting. 

2. His neighbors chose him to represent them. 

3. Much will depend upon the doctor's coming. 

4. He has his clothes made in Paris. 

5. I have bread to eat ye know not of. 

6. Did 3^ou see the bird build the nest? 

7. The robbers having left, he gave the alarm. 

8. Soon I saw Albert carrying Delia, her head falling 

backwards and her little feet dragging. 

9. With folded hands and dreamy eyes. 
Wandering out of Paradise, 

She saw this planet, like a star, 

Hung in the purple depths of even, — 
It's bridges running to and fro, 
O'er which the white-winged angels go 
Bearing the holy dead to heaven. 



270 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

10. Numb'd by the piercing freezing air, 
And burdened by his game, 
The hunter, struggling with despair, 
Dragged on his shivering frame. 

530. Exercises. 

Exjmud the following abridged sentences: 

1. The rain having ceased, we departed. 

2. His father having died, he had to labor. 

3. I did it to prevent his injuring himself. 

4. I heard of his coming. 

5. There is a lioht lio-htincr every man. 

6. Ireland is an island bounded on the west by the 

Atlantic Ocean. 

7. They could not be kept back from hurling darts. 

8. On approaching the house, I saw it to be on fire. 

9. It is not theft to take a madman's sword to pre- 

vent his injuring himself. 

10. Let me move slowly through the street, 
Filled with an ever-shifting train. 

531. Exercises. 

Abridge the following sentences: 

1. We sat by the fisher's cottage, 
And looked at the stormy tide. 



THE SYNTAX OF WORDS. 271 

2. At midnight they set out and carried with them 

ropes and ladders. 

3. They seated themselves on a stone and awaited the 

dawn of day. 

4. He threw the sling over his shoulder and prepared 

to descend with the help of a rope. 

5. She walked slowly down the green aisle, and gave 

herself up to the enjo3'ment of the lovely place. 

6. The girl came to a bed of pansies and sat down 

on a rustic chair. 

7. He skipped about in the aspen tree, 
And talked to himself and blinked at me. 

8. Tom told me that I should be a man and study 

like a Trojan. 

9. We sat on two long benches which reached down 

the side of the meeting-house. 

10. The savage was astonished and gazed upon his 

helpless limb, which dangled by his side, and 
then uttered a cry and dodged from tree to tree, 
and finally disappeared. 

11. O, holy night! from thee I learn to bear 

What man has borne before I 
Thou layest thy finger on the lips of Care, 
And they complain no more. 

12. Like Dian's kiss, unasked, unsought, 
Love gives itself, but is not bought ; 

Nor voice nor sound betrays 
Its deep impassioned gaze. 



272 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 



FORMS OF EXPRESSION. 

532. Thought is expressed by means of sentences 
which may be loose or periodic. 

533. A Loose Sentence is a short, independent state- 
ment, complete in itself and making full sense. 

Examples. 

I confess it was want of consideration that made me 
an author. I wrote because it amused me. I corrected 
because it was as pleasant for me to correct as to write. 
I published because I was told I might please such as 
it was a credit to please. 

Remark. — The loose or non-periodic sentence is suited 
for expressing common ideas, in a familiar, easy way. 

534. A Periodic Sentence is a statement consisting of 
mutually dependent parts so arranged as to converge to 
a climax. 

Example. 

As a son, leaving the house of his father for his own, 
finds, by the order of nature and the very law of his 
being, nearer and dearer objects around which his affec- 
tions circle, while his attachment to the parental roof 
becomes moderated, by degrees, to a composed regard 
and an affectionate remembrance ; so our ancestors, leav- 
ing their native land, not without some violence to the 



THE SYNTAX OF WORDS. 273 



feelings of nature and affection, yet in time, found here 
a new circle of engagements, interests and affections ; a 
feeling which more and more encroached upon the old, 
till an undivided sentiment, that this loas their country^ 
occupied the heart: and patriotism, shutting out from 
its embraces the parent realm, became local to America. 

Remark. — The periodic sentence is showy, dignified, 
musical and oratorical, and gives an air of dignity to 
composition. 

535. Exercises. 

1. Write five loose sentences upon some topic and 
then change them into a periodic sentence. 

Model. — Let us compare man with other animals. Is 
he not a wonderful piece of work? His powers of rea- 
son seem to be infinite, shining through his form and 
speaking in every movement. Surely he is more than a 
mere animal. He seems to be an angel or a god. 

Changed. — What a piece of work is man! how noble 
in reason I how infinite in faculties ! in form and motion, 
how express and admirable ! in action, how like an angel ! 
in apprehension, how like a god! 

2. Write a periodic sentence and then resolve it 
into five loose sentences. 

3. Take a given selection and tell which sentences 
are loosely constructed and which are periodic. 

18 



274 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

4. Take a given selection and change the loose sen- 
tences into periodic ones, and the periodic sentences into 
loose ones. 

5. Take the words justice^ prudence^ temperance and 
fortitude and write five different sentences containing 
them. 

FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 

536. Figures are deviations from tlie ordinary form or 
meaning of words. 

537. There are four kinds of figures, viz: 
I. Figures of Etymology, 

II. Figures of Orthography, 
III. Figures of Syntax, and — 0. 

IV. Figures of Rhetoric. 

538. Figures of Etymology add a syllable at the 
beginning, in the middle, or at the end of a word. 

1. Prosthesis adds a syllable at the beginning of a 
word ; as, J am aweary of my life. Aweary is used for 
weary. 

2. Epenthesis adds a syllable in the middle of a 
word; as. His love is shown to-us-ward, To-us-ward is 
used for toward us. Whatsoever is used for whatever, ^ 

1 

3. Paragoge adds a syllable at the end of a word; 
as, Dickie is my bird, ^ 



FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 275 

Remark. — These figures are used in metrical composi- 
tion. 

539. Figures of Orthography take away a letter or 
letters from the beginning, middle or end of words. 

1. Aphaeresis takes away a letter or letters from 
the beginning of a word; as, They've come, 've is used 
for have, 

2. Syncope takes away a letter or letters from the 
middle of a word ; as. Sing them o'er again to me. 
O'er is used for over. 

3. Apocope takes away a letter or letters from the 
end of a word ; as, Tho' he slay me, Tho' is used for 
though, 

4. Amendation is a respelling of words to show 
their pronunciation ; as, Agen for again ; 7^nf for rough ; 
thru for through. 

Remark. — The British and the American Philological 
Associations have agreed to simplify a large number of 
words by dropping useless letters and making substitu- 
tions. These amendations are known as the twenty rules. 

540. Figures of Syntax are deviations from the 
ordinary arrangements or construction of words. 

1. Ellipsis is the omission of words necessary to 
complete the sense ; as. And this to me f The complete 
sense is : Do you dare to say this to me ? 



276 COMPLETE COTTRBE IIST LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

Remark. — Connectives and auxiliaries are often omitted ; 
as, / know he is here for / know that he is here. 

2. Pleonasm is the insertion of words not neces- 
sary to express the complete thought; as, The boy^ oh, 
where was he ? I felt it with my hands. 

3. Hyperbaton is a transposition of the elements of 
a sentence; as. There loere twenty tehsons present^::^^ 
TiLienty persons loere present, 

4. Enallage is the use of a different form of a 
word than the laws of grammar require; as, They fall, 
SUCCESSIVE and successive rise. Successive is used for 
successively, 

541. Figures of Rhetoric are deviations in language 
to express beauty, emphasis, or novelty. 

1. A Simile is an explicit statement in which one 
thing in one of its aspects is likened to another. 

Examples. 

Hope, like the gleaming taper's light, 
Adorns and cheers the way. 

Fortune is as fickle as the wind. 

True ease in writing comes from art not chance. 
As those move easiest who have learned to dance. 

I have ventured like little wanton boys 
That swim on bladders, these many summers 
On a sea of glory. 



FIGURES OF SPEECH. 277 

He was like a fox in the council. 

The juror was as stubborn as a mule. 

Eemark. — Like and as are used in forming a simile. 

542. A Metaphor is a word which directly ascribes 
to one object the qualities of another. 

Examples. 
He was a lion in the fight. 
The body is the soul's dark cottage. 
Man, thou pendulum 'twixt a smile and tear. 
He is the pillar of the State. 
Bolivar was the Washington of South America. 

RE:\rARK. — A continued metaphor like Pilgrim's Pro- 
gress, is called an Allegory, and is a figurative appli- 
cation of real facts. 

543. A Parable is a supposed history, used to com- 
municate religious ideas. A Fable is a brief story with 
a concealed meaning. 

544. Hyperbole is a form of expression which magni- 
fies or minifies a statement beyond the probability of 

truth. 

Examples. 

He is a man of boundless knowledge. 

They fired the shot heard round the world. The waves 
ran mountains high ; He was taller than a pine-tree and 
she was smaller than a midget. 



278 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

545. Personification is a form of expression in 
which animals or inanimate objects are regarded as 
persons. 

Examples. 

Fold up thy sable curtain, Night, and pin it with a 
star. Ye crags and peaks, I'm with 3^ou once again. 
The weeping winds swept softly by. The mountains sing 
together, the hills rejoice and clap their hands. 

546. Antithesis is a form of expression in which 
objects, acts, or qualities are contrasted. 

Examples. 

Haste is not speed. Gold cannot make a man happy 
any more than rags can make him miserable. The wicked 
flee when no man pursueth, but the righteous are as 
bold as a lion. The prodigal robs his heir; the miser 
robs himself. When our vices leave us we flatter our- 
selves that we leave them. Flattering brings friends ; 
truth brings foes. 

547. Climax is such an arrangement of the parts of 
a sentence that the thought rises step by step in impor- 
tance, force, or dignity. 

Examples. 

I came, I saw, I conquered. Thou didst blow with 
thy wind, the sea covered them ; they sank hke lead in 
the mighty waters. At home, in the field, and also as 



FIGURES OP SPEECH. 279 

a member of the Senate, he was distinguished for his 
magnanimity, his prudence and his probity. 

548. Metonomy is a figure of speech in which one 
word is put for another. 

Examples. 
The man labored for gold. Can gray hairs make folly 
venerable? The pen is mightier than the sword. The 
drunkard loves his bottle. Man shall live by the sweat 
of his brow. Gray hairs should be respected. His friend's 
roof received him. The kettle boils. Who steals my 
purse steals trash. 

549. Synecdoche is a figure of speech by which a 
part is put for a whole, or a whole for a part. 

Examples. 
His red nose was the cause of his dismissal. Valor 
ever gains the day. Gray hairs protected him. Their 
flag is seen on every sea. The bottle has been the de- 
stroyer of many men. I abjure all roofs. Water has 
established England's prosperity. 

550. Apostrophe is a turning away from a real 
audience to address an imaginary one. 

Examples. 
O judgment, thou art fled to brutish breasts ! O Milton, 
a grateful people read thy immortal works ! O earth, 
receive thy weary child. 



280 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

551. Interrogation is a statement or series of state- 
ments put into interrogative form for the sake of emphasis. 

Examples. 

Who shall separate us from the love of God? shall 
tribulation, or anguish, or persecution, or famine, or 
nakedness, or peril, or sword? 

Breathes there a man with soul so dead 
That never to himself hath said, 
This is my own, my native land? 

Who would lose this intellectual being, those thoughts 
which wander throuo:h eternity? 

552. Irony is a figure of speech in which words are 
intended to convey a meaning opposite to their ordinary 
acceptation. 

Examples. 

Ye are the men and loisdom will die with you. How 
fast the snail moves ! How much a bo}^ learns in a week I 

553* Vision is a figure of speech in which objects 
or events remote in time and space are represented as 
present. 

Examples. 

They form, they move, they rout the enemy, they 
shout, they feast. Csesar crosses the Rubicon, defeats 
his colleagues, overrides the laws, and falls by the daggers 
of Koman Senators. 



FIGURES OF SPEECH. 281 

554. Exercises. 

1. Write five sentences illustrating the use of the 
figures of etymology. 

2. Write five sentences illustrating the figures of 
orthography. 

Model. — Tho' late, I'll come. 

3. Write five sentences illustrating the use of the 
figures of syntax. 

Model. — The house he built, was burnt. 

4. Write ^ve sentences using similes. 
Model. — He is as hungry as a wolf. 

5. Write five sentences using metaphors. 
Model. — Behold a Daniel come to judgment. 

6. Select an allegory, a fable, and a parable, and 
show wherein they differ, 

7. Write five sentences showing the use of hyper- 
bole. 

Model. — His muscles are stronger than iron. 

8. Write five sentences using personification. 
Model. — The dew is weeping the fall of day. 

9. Write five sentences using antithesis. 
Model. — Talent is weight, but tact is momentum. 
10. Write five sentences showing climax. 
Model. — He works, he examines, he thinks. 



282 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

11. Write five sentences showing how one word is 
put for another. 

Model. — His arm is not shortened that he cannot save. 

12. Write five sentences showing how the part may 
represent the whole or the whole the part. 

Model. — The wheels are turning night and day. 

13. Write a brief speech and show the use of apos- 
trophe. 

Model. — Friends, our cause is lost. O ye slaughtered 
throng, arise and avenge our wrongs. 

14. Write five sentences showing emphasis by interro- 
gation. 

Model. — Shall we toil? shall we plan, shall we take 
risks, and receive no reward? 

15. Write five sentences showing the use of irony. 

Model. — What a credit to free institutions ballot-stuff- 
ing is! 

16. Write five sentences showing the use of vision. 

Model. — He rises early, toils assiduously^, acquires a 
competence, and now leads in every enterprise. 

17. Point out the figures in a given extract and 
explain the use of the words. 

18. Write a composition in allegorical form. 

19. Name ten words which are used metaphorically. 



SOLECISMS. 283 



SOLECISMS. 

555. A Solecism is any impropriety, incongruity, or 
want of correspondence in the use of language. 

Remakk. — Grammar develops principles and rules which 
serve as tests of accuracy. The requirements heretofore 
given have so impressed correct forms upon the learner's 
mind, that he is now prepared to judge between correct 
and incorrect forms of expression and to make a critical 
application of his knowledge. 

556. Solecisms may arise from any one of six sources. 
I. The improper use of singular and plural forms. 

II. Words used mthout distinct references. 

III. The improper omission of words. 

IV. The wrong form of words. 
y. Using the wrong word. 

VI. Improper positions or additions of words. 

557. The Improper Use of Singular and Plural 

Forms. 
The plural forms of foreign nouns should not be mis- 
used for the singular forms. 

Remark. — The forms of such words should be carefully 
learned from the dictionary. 

a. Words whose singular ends in is and plural in es, 
as analysis^ axis, basis, crisis, oasis, synopsis, thesis. 



284 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR, 

Examples. 

The synopsis is not properly prepared. 
A parenthesis encloses explanatory words. 
The basis of his arguments are unsound. 

558. Words whose singular ends in a, us^ um or on 
with plurals in 02, a, or i. 

Examples. 
Many things serve as a stimulus to study. 
I made a memoranda of it. 

559. Cherubim and seraphim are misused as singulars. 

Examples. 
He is a cherubim and she is a seraphim. 

560. Pronouns not agreeing in number with 

their antecedents. 

Examples. 

Each of the ladies were perfect in their parts. 

The Parliament was assembled when the king made 

them a plausible speech. 

He made one of the clumsiest boius that luas ever per- 
formed. 

561. A plural verb 'with a singular subject. 

Examples. 

No nation but ourselves have equally succeeded. 



SOLECISMS. 285 



Neither law nor opinion superadd artificial obstacles to 
the natural ones. 

It is a different set of men who suggest things from 
those who carry them into effect. 

562. Pronouns and adjectives used without distinct 
references. 

Examples. 

It is a painful discovery we make as we advance in 
life^ that even those we most love are not exempt from 
its frailties. 

The first project was to shorten polysyllables into one, 

563. Words without grammatical connection. 

Example. 

The property which every man has in his own labor, 
as it is the original foundation of all other property, so 
it is the most sacred and in\iolable. 

564. Verbals used without distinct subjects. 

Examples. 

Approaching nearer, the halo began to fade. 

Without limiting the range of his studies, the man was 
offered a large salary. 

To tell the truth, the house was built ten years ago. 



286 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

565. Improper omissions of principal parts of 

verbs. 

Examples. 
I shall persuade all others to do as I Jiave. 
The dedication may serve for almost any book that 
7ias^ is or shall be published. 

566. The omission of the sign of the infinitive (to). 

Examples. 
The boy learned to read and write. 
He knows better than ivithJwld it. 
She did what she wanted to. 

567. The omission of words necessary to com- 

plete the sense. 

Examples. 
He seemed rather to aim at gaining the doubtful tJiaii 
mortifying or crushing the hostile. 

The discoursing on pohtics shall be looked upon as 
dull as talking on the weather. 

568. The wrong use of a perfect infinitive or parti- 
ciple after a past tense. 

Examples. 
I meant to have luritten to you. I intended to have 
gone. He was afraid that he might have resumed his fell 



SOLECISMS. 287 



purpose. He wanted him to have been well educated. 
Do you remember hearing him speak ? 

569. Whom misused for who and wYio for whom. 

Examples. 

Saladin, than whom no greater name is recorded in 
Eastern history. 

He found two French ladies in their bonnets, ivho he 
soon discovered to be actresses. 

570. The nominative used for the objective. 

Examples. 
Let he who made thee answer. 
This is a secret between you and I. 

571. The possessive should be used only to express 
the ownership^ origin or fitness of persons, animals and 
personified objects. 

Examples. 

The house's roof should be the roof of the house. 

Kemark. — Only the names of persons^ animals and 
personified objects admit of a possessive case. Instead 
of saying the table's legs . we should say the legs of the 
table. 

572. The wrong word is often used. 

Shall and should in the first person and loill and would in 
the second and the third persons should be used when 
futurity simply is meant to be expressed. 



288 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

Examples. 
I will be drowned, nobody shall help me. 
We wdll be smothered together. 

573- Will and looidd in the first person and shall 
and should in the second and the third persons are used 
to express a loish^ a resolution^ a promise^ or a threat. 

Examples. 
I think it will snow to-day. 
Will we come to-morrow? 
You will have these books to-morrow. 
He shall be punished. 

574. Or should not be used after neither. 

Examples. 
He neither knew the manner, or the place. 
A constable will neither act cheerfully or wisely. 

575. Adverbs should not modify nouns. 

Examples. 
Most everybody is some better. 
Our hitherto reforms. Her almost childhood. 

576. Proper prepositions should be used. 

Examples. 
I was averse from a catastrophe so feeble, 
The greatest masters differ among one another. 



SOLECISMS. 289 



Remark.— Study how each preposition is used after 
particular verbs and adjectives, 

577. The former, the latter, either and neither 
must not be used when the reference is to more 
than two. 

Examples. 

Neither of the three. The latter of four hoys. 

578. The first, the last, any one, no one refer to 
three or more. 

Examples. 

The two first lines. Any one of the two. 

579. Double negatives should not be used. 

Examples. 

Nobody did nothing. One whose desires are not his 
own has no character no more than a steam-engine. 

580. Which should not be used when its ante- 
cedent is a clause. 

Example. 

The captain saluted the quarter-deck, ajid all the offi- 
cers saluted him, ivhich he returned. 

581. Who, whose and whom should not be used 
to refer to impersonal objects. 

19 



290 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR, 

Examples. 
It is frequented by fowls whom nature has taught. 
He is the active enemy of a nation loliom he only dis- 
likes. 

IMPROPER ADDITIONS OR POSITIONS 
OF WORDS. 

582. The or his before a verb modified by an 

adverb. 

Examples. 

Much depends on the faithfully obser\ing the rule. 

It did him no more good than his afterward trying to 

pacif}^ us. 

583. Placing an adverb between to and its verb. 

Examples. 

He is not the man to tamely submit. 
He tried to quietly depart. 

584. Using and before a relative clause. 

Examples. 

My father acknowledges the favor and for which he is 
duly thankful. 

He begged him to preserve his Highland arms and 
accoutrements, and to which the friendship of the donors 
gave additional value. 

585. As and than go with the subject or with 
the object. 



PROSODY. 291 



Examples. 
You know as well as me that he never swerves from 
his resolution. 

With a freedom more like the milk-maid of the town 
than she of the plains, she accosted him. 

586. Exercises. 

1. Correct all the sentences in the foregoing examples 
and give reasons for the corrections. 

2. Select solecisms from the books and periodicals 
which you read and correct the expressions. 

3. Make lists of all queer expressions which you hear 
and examine them critically. 

PROSODY. 

587. Prosody is that part of grammar which treats of 
metrical composition. 

588. Poetry is discourse written in measured lan- 
guage. There are three kinds of poetr}^ : heroic, dram- 
atic and lyric. 

589. Heroic Poetry narrates in an elevated style 
the achievements of some real or fabulous person. 

Remark.-— Corner, Virgil^ Dante^ and Milton are great 
masters of epic poetry. 

590. Dramatic Poetry is designed to be spoken or 
represented and depicts a series of actions terminating 
in some striking result. 



292 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

Remark. — Shakspere and Goethe are the great mas- 
ters of dramatic poetry. 

591. Lyric Poetry expresses the emotions of the 
poet and is fitted to be sung. 

Remark. — King David, Pindar, Watts, Wesley, Long- 
fellow and Whittier are the great masters of song. 

592. A single line of poetry is called a Verse. 

593. A Couplet consists of two lines of poetry 
which rhyme. 

Example. 

Look round our world ; behold the chain of love 
Combining all below and all above. 

594. A Triplet consists of three lines of poetry 
which rlwme. 

Example. 

Bear through sorrow, wrong and ruth, 
In thy heart the dew of youth. 
On thy lips the smile of truth. 

595. A Stanza is that part of a poem which gener- 
ally contains every variation of measure found in the 
poem. 

Example. 

Be still, sad heart, and cease repining ; 
Behind the clouds is the sun still shining; 
Thy fate is the common fate of all. 
Into each life some rain must fall; 
Some days must be dark and dreary. 



PROSODY. 293 



596. A Sonnet is a poem of fourteen lines, consist- 
ing of two four-lined stanzas and two triplets. 

Example. 

The sun is set ; and in his latest beams, 
Yon little clouds of ashen gray and gold, 
Slowly upon the amber air unrolled. 

The falling mantle of the prophet seems. 

From the dim headlands many a light-house gleams 
The street-lamps of the ocean; and behold, 
O'erhead the banners of the night unfold; 

The day hath passed into the land of dreams. 
O summer day beside the joyous seal 
O summer day so wonderful and white. 
So full of gladness and so full of pain! 

Forever and forever shalt thou be 

To some the gravestone of a dead delight, 

To some the landmark of a new domain. 

597. Versification is the art of metrical composi- 
tion. 

598. Rhyme is the correspondence of sound in the 
last accented TYord or syllable of two or more lines of 
poetry. 

Example. 

For rhyme with reason doth dispense, 
And sound has right to govern sense. 

599. A Rhyme consists of the same vowel and con- 
sonants preceded by different consonants. Thus: ligJit 
and bright^ trees and breeze are rhymes. 

600. Verses consist of poetic feet. 



294 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

6oi. A Poetic Foot is part of a line of poetry com- 
bined according to accent. 

602. The principal poetic feet used in English poetry 
are the Iambus, the Trochee, the Spondee, the 
Pyrrhic, the Anapest, the Dactyl, and the Amphi- 
brach, 



Symbol. 





Examples. 


Najhe. 


WOKD. 


Iambus : 


consists' 


Trochee : 


hap'py 


Spondee: 


boys', girls' 


Pyrrhic : 


at the 


Anajjest: 


all at once' 


Dactyl: 


principal 


Amphibrach: 


accented 



'The breve (-^) denotes an unaccented syllable: 
the macron (-) denotes an accented syllable, 

603. A verse is named from the number of poetic 
feet it contains and the kind of poetic foot which pre- 
dominates in it. 

604. Coleridge thus characterizes the poetic feet: 

''Tro'chees | trip' from j long' to | short'. 

From long' | to long', | in soF- | emu sort', 

Slow' Spon' I dee' stalks' ; | strong' foot', yet | ill' able 

Ev'er to | come' up with | Dac'tyl tri- | syl'lable. 



MEASUKES. 295 



lam' I bics march' | from short' | to long'. 

With a leap' | and a bound', | the swift An' | apests 

throng'. 
One syl'la | ble long', with | one short' at | each side', 
Amphi'brach- | ys hastes' with | a state'ly | stride.'* 



605. MEASURES. 

A Monometer is a verse of one foot. 



A Dimeter '• 


c c 


L i 


i. i 


two feet 


A Trimeter " 


(. c 


C i. 


i L 


three " 


A Tetrameter '• 


c c 


t. c 


i, i 


four < ' 


A Pentameter " 


( !. 


C ( 


(. I 


five '' 


A Hexameter " 


(. c 


C ( 


i 4 


six " 


A Heptameter^'- 


i. ( 


c c 


i. i 


seven " 


An Octameter " 


i c 


i i 


(, i 


eight " 



Remark. — By placing iambic, trochaic, spondaic, 
anapestic, dactylic and amphybrachic before these 
measures, the names of the different kinds of verses are 
formed. 

606. The number and kind of poetic feet name the 
measures in which a poem is written. 

607. Poetic Pauses. 
In reading poetry, there should be a pause at the end 
of each line and a Cii?sural pause after some word in 
the line ending with an accented syllable. 



296 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANXtUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

Eemakk. — The diA'isiou of a verse into poetic feet is 
indicated l\v a single vertical line. Civsural pauses are 
shown hy parallel vertical lines. 

Examples. 
She taught | the vreak | to bend ;' the proud | to pray. 

608. Heroic Verse is the measure in which heroic 
(epic) poetry is written and consists of live Iambic feet 
with two or three rhymes in succession. When written 
without rhymes, it is called Blank Verse. 

Examples. 

Rhymes. — Hope spring,^ eternal in the human breast- 
Man never is, but always to be blest: 
The soul uneasy and confined from home, 
Eests and expatiates in a life to come. 

Blank Verse. — Great are Thy works, Jehovah I infinite 
Thy power I What thought can measure Thee, or tongue 
Relate Thee ? Greater now in thy retnrn 
Than from the giant angels: Thee that day 
Thy thunders magnified; but to create 
Is greater than created to destroy. 

609. The Elegiac Heroic Stanza consists of five 
Iambic feet with alternate rhymes. 

Example. 

The curfew tolls the knell of parting day, 
The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea; 

The ])lowman homeward ]^lods his weary wa}^, 
And leaves the world to darkness and to me. 



HYMNOLOGY. 297 



6io. The Ballad Stanza consists of four lines of 
Iambic tetrameter verses alternating and rhyming with 
iambic trimeter ones. 



Example. 

The Past and Present here unite 
Beneath time's flowing tide; 

Like footprints hidden by a brook 
But seen on either side. 



HYMNOLOGY. 

6ii. Common Meter is like the Ballad Stanza. 

Example. 

Happy the heart where graces reign, 

Where love inspires the breast; 
Love is the brightest of the train 

And strengthens all the rest. 

612. Short Meter differs from common meter in hav- 
ing only three iambic feet in the first line. 

Example. 

My soul be on th}^ guard, 

Ten thousand foes arise ; 
The hosts of sin are pressing hard 

To draw thee from the skies. 

613. Long Meter consists of four iambic pentameter 
verses with alternate rhymes or rhyming in couplets 



298 COMPLETE COUBSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 



Example. 
Alternate Rhymes: 

Before Jehovah's awful throne 

Ye nations bow with sacred joy; 

Know that the Lord is God alone, 
He can create and He destroy. 

In Couplets: 

The billows swell, the winds are high, 

Clouds overcast m}^ wintry sky ; 

Out of the depths to Thee I call ; 

My fears are great, my strength is small. 

614. Hallelujah Meter is a stanza of six Iambic 
verses, the first four being trimeter and the last two 
tetrameter verses. 

Example. 

Five bleeding wounds he bears, 

Received on Calvary ; 
They pour effectual prayers, 

They strongly plead for me : 
. Forgive him, O forgive, they cry, 
Nor let a ransomed sinner die. 

615. Anapestic Tetrameter verses are used in many 
popular hymns. 

Examples. 
I would not live alway; I ask not to stay. 
How firm a foundation, ye saints of the Lord, 



STANZAS. 299 



6i6. The Spenserian Stanza. 

This stanza consists of nine Iambic lines, the first eight being 
heroics and the ninth an Alexandrine. 

I care not, Fortune, what you me deny ; 

You can not rob me of free Nature's grace; 
You can not shut the windows of the sky, 

Through which Aurora shows her bright' ning face; 

Y"ou can not bar my constant feet to trace 
The woods and lawns by Uving stream at eve ; 

Let health my nerves and finer fibres brace, 
And I their joys to the great children leave: 

Of fancy, reason, virtue, naught can me bereave. 

617. Gay's Stanza. 

The rhymes are alternate and the odd rhymes double. 

" 'Twas when the seas were roaring 

With hollow blasts of wind, 
A damsel lay deploring, 

All on a rock rechned; 
Wide o'er the foaming billows 

She cast a wistful look ; 
Her head was crown' d with willows, 

That trembled o'er the brook." 

618. Rhyme Royal. 

Seven lines of heroics, the rhymes of the first five recurring 
at intervals, and the last two being alternate. 

For, lol the sea that fleets about the land, 

And like a girdle clips her solid waist, 
Music and measure both doth understand. 
For his great crystal eye is alwavs cast 
Up to the moon, and on her fixeth fast; 
And as she in her pallid sphere. 
So danceth he about the centre here. 



SOO COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

619. Ottava Rima. 

Eight trochaic lines, the first six rhyming alternately, and 
the last two successively. 

Morgante had a palace in his mode, 

Composed of branches, logs of wood, and earth, 
And stretch' d himself at ease in this abode, 

And shut himself at night within his berth. 
Orlando knock' d, and knock' d again, to goad 

The giant from his sleep ; and he came forth 
The door to open like a crazy thing, 
For a rough dream had shook him slumbering. 

620. Terza Rima. 

Nine lines, with alternate rhymes, two of which are triple. 

Many are poets who have never penn'd 

Their inspiration, and, perchance, the best: 
They felt, and loved, and died, but would not lend 
Their thoughts to meaner beings; they compress' d 

The God within them, and rejoin' d the stars 
Unlaurel'd upon earth, but far more bless' d 
Than those who are degraded by the jars 
Of passion, and their frailties linked to fame. 
Conquerors of high renown, but full of scars. 

621. Dactylic Hexameter. 
This is Longfellow's celebrated verse. 

This' is the | for 'est pri | meVal; but ] where' are the | 
hearts' that be | neath it 

Leap'd' like the roe', when it hears' in the wood'land the 
voice' of the huntsman ? 

Where is the thatch-roofed village, the home of Acadian 
farmers ? 

Men whose lives glided on like rivers that water the wood- 
lands. 

Darken' d by shadows of earth, but reflecting an image of 
Heaven ? 



TOPICAL REVIEW. 301 

622. Topical Review. 
Define idea ; — word ; — thought ; — sentence. Name and 
define the four forms of sentences. What does grammar 
teach? -How are elements expressed ? Name two classes 
of elements. Name and define the principal elements. 
Name and define the subordinate elements. What ques- 
tions does an adverbial element answer ? Wliat is a 
phrase ? How are phrases classed ? What is a clause ? 
How are clauses classed ? Define each kind of clause. 
In w^hat four relations may substantive clauses be used ? 
How is a relative clause used ? Name the seven kinds 
of adverbial clauses. In what clauses and when is the 
subjunctive mode used? Define simple element; — com- 
pound element; — complex element. Show how each ele- 
ment is symbolized. Show how phrases and clauses are 
symbolized. 

How are sentences classed in regard to structure ? 
Define simple sentence ; — compound sentence ; — complex 
sentence. What is analysis ? Exemplify and compare 
the two systems of diagraming. 

How may the forms of elements be changed ? What 
changes may be made? How may sentences be resolved 
and recombined? 

How many concords are there in English ? Name 
each of them. What is the common order of words? 
Give these. 



302 COMPLETE COUKSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMA^. 

What is syntax ? What is parsing ? Name the six 
classes of syntactic relations. Give Kule I. Give each 
of the four parts of Rule II. Name the three objective 
relations. Give the rule for the direct object; — the 
preposition ; — the object of the preposition ; — the indirect 
object. Name the limiting relations. Tell the form and 
use of possessives ; — possessives without nouns ; — apposi- 
tives ; - — the adjective, including articles, demonstratives, 
numerals ; — adverbs ; — the noun of quantity ; — partici- 
pials ; — limitations expressed by inflection ; — condition 
and manner expressed by auxiliaries. 

What are the complemental relations ? Give the rule 
for the predicate noun or pronoun; — adjective or parti- 
ciple; — transitive verb and noun; — transitive verb and 
adjective; — incomplete verbs and verbals. 

What are conjunctive relations ? Give the rule for the 
use of coordinate conjunctions. 

What are subordinate connectives? Give the subor- 
dinate conjunctions ; — conjunctive adverbs ; — relative 
pronouns. Give the syntax of clauses. Show the dif- 
ference between direct and indirect discourse. Tell how 
the modes are used in conditional and concessive clauses. 
Give the rule for the use of subordinate conjunctions. 
Give the rule for the use of conjunctive adverbs. Tell 
how relative pronouns are used. Give the rule for their 
use. 

What is a participial or verbal ? How are participles 



TOPICAL REVIEW. 303 



formed? Name the four uses of participials. Show how 
sentences are contracted; — abridged. 

How ai^e relative clauses abridged ? — adverbial clauses ? 
When have abridged clauses subjects? Give the four 
constructions of participials. Give the rule for the pos- 
sessive subject. 

What two kinds of sentences are there ? Define a 
loose sentence; — a periodic sentence. 

What are figures of speech? Name and define the 
four kinds of figures. Name and define the three figures 
of etymology ; — the four figures of orthography ; — the 
four figures of sjaitax ; — the thirteen figures of rhetoric. 

What is a solecism ? Name the six sources of sole- 
cisms. 

What is prosody ? What is poetry? Name and define 
the three kinds of poetry. Define verse, couplet, triplet, 
stanza, sonnet. What is versification ? — rhythm ? — 
rhyme ? What is a rhyme ? What are poetic feet ? Give 
the names of poetic feet;— poetic verses. What are 
poetic pauses ? 

What is heroic verse ? — blank verse ? — elegiac verse ? 

— the ballad stanza? What kind of verses constitute 
common meter? — short meter? — long meter? — hallelu- 
jah meter ? — other meters ? Define trochaic tetrameter; 

— dactylic, anapestic, amphibrachic. What is the Spen- 
serian stanza ? — Gay's stanza ? — rhyme royal ? — ottava 
rima ? — terza rima ? — dactylic hexameter ? 



304 COMPLETE COURSE IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 



SYNOPTICAL REVIEW. 

Elements : subject, predicate, copula, adjective element, 
objective element, adverbial element ; forms of elem.ents — 
simple, complex, compound; symbolization, words, phrases, 
clauses. 

Sentences: forms — declarative, interrogative, impera- 
tive, exclamatory; rank — principal, subordinate; structure 
. — simple, compound, complex, contracted, abridged; 
analysis — involving words only, involving phrases, involv- 
ing clauses; construction — changing forms of elements, 
resolving into elements, re-combining elements. 

Syntactic forms : agreement of words, government of 
words, order of words. 

Classes of syntactic relation: the agreement of a 
verb with its subject; objective relations — direct object, 
indirect object; complemented re/afzo?is— predicate noun 
and pronoun, predicate adjective, transitive verb and noun, 
transitive verb and adjective, adjectives and verbals after 
verbs expressing semblance, tendency and effort ; conjunc- 
tive relations — coordinate conjunctions, subordinate con- 
junctions, conjunctive adverbs, relative pronouns. 

Participial relations : form of participials, uses of 
participials, predicates for abridgment. 

Forms of expression : loose seirtences, periodic sen- 
tences. 

Figurative language : figures of etym.ology, figures 
of orthography, figures of syntax, figures of rhetoric. 

Solecisms: singular and plural forms misused, pro- 
nouns and verbs without antecedents or subjects, wrong 
form of words, omission of words, improper positions of 
words. 

Prosody: poetry, kinds of poetry; verses, kinds of 
verses ; versification, rhythm, rhyme ; poetic feet, name of 
verses ; heroic verse, blank verse, elegiac verse, hymnol- 
ogy, kinds of meters; stanzas — Spenserian, Gay's, rhyme 
royal, ottava rima, terza rima, dactytic hexameter. 



iliiliiiiil^ 



UBRARY QF_CONCRESS 



003 231 389 9 




